UV‐light and dietary vitamin D and their effects on ionized calcium and 25‐OH‐D plasma concentrations in captive gentoo penguins (Pygoscelis papua)

In this study, the effect of ultraviolet (UV) light and dietary vitamin D on calcium metabolism in permanently indoor‐housed gentoo penguins (Pygoscelis papua ) was investigated. The study consisted of three periods, each completed with blood samples to analyse plasma concentrations of 25‐OH‐D, 1,25‐(OH)₂‐D, ionized (iCa) and total calcium (tCa). During the first study period (D), animals were housed under routine conditions without UV‐light and fed a diet of different fish species, supplemented with 1,000 IU vitamin D per animal and day. The following study period (Baseline) of 28‐day duration consisted of the same diet without any vitamin D supplementation and without UV‐light. During the study period (UVB) artificial UV‐light was added for 3 weeks. The vitamin D content of fish was measured by high‐performance liquid chromatography. It varied between fish species and between facilities, ranging from no measurable content in capelin (Mallotus villosus ) to 7,340 IU vitamin D/kg original matter (OM) in herring (Clupea spp). The average dietary vitamin D content was 311 IU/kg OM at facility 1 and 6,325 IU/kg OM at facility 2, resulting in a vitamin D intake per animal and day without supplementation of 130 IU (25.5 IU/kg body weight BW) and 2,454 IU (438.2 IU/kg BW) respectively. The supplementation of vitamin D elevated significantly the plasma concentrations of 25‐OH‐D by an intraindividual difference of 15 (range ?2 to 59) nmol/L and tCa by 0.1 (0.0–0.3) mmol/L only at facility 2. The exposure to UV‐light raised the blood concentrations of tCa at facility 2 by 0.15 (0.1–0.2) mmol/L, and of iCa and tCa for females at facility 1 by 0.23 (0.13–0.41) mmol/L and 1.8 (1.1–2.5) mmol/L respectively. No significant influence of the study periods (D) and (UVB) was found for the concentrations of 1,25‐(OH)₂‐D at both facilities.     

Juvenile mortality in captive lesser kudu (Tragelaphus imberbis) at Basle Zoo and its relation to nutrition and husbandry.

Since 1956, when the Basle Zoo (Switzerland) initiated the breeding of lesser kudu (Tragelaphus imberbis), 43% of the lesser kudu juveniles died before reaching an age of 6 mo. In this study, the objective was to obtain the pathological findings, nutritional history, and family tree information in order to evaluate the influence of husbandry on juvenile mortality in these animals. The main cause of death was white muscle disease (WMD), diagnosed in 14 cases (26%) of the deceased juveniles. Although enclosure size had remained constant and animal accessibility to the public was constantly high, both herd size and juvenile mortality had increased from 1956-2004. The diet consumed by the whole group in 2004 had deficient levels of vitamin E and selenium. The increasing linear trend of the mortality rate since the 1960s was significant, and there was a significant correlation between herd size and overall juvenile mortality. In contrast, there was no correlation between herd size and the occurrence of juvenile mortality associated specifically with WMD. Other investigated factors (sex, inbreeding, and season) had no significant effect on overall mortality up to 6 mo of age or on mortality associated with WMD. These results characterize both a dietary and a husbandry problem, and are supported by a lack of similar juvenile mortality in another facility where the diet was supplemented with vitamin E, animal numbers were kept low, and the enclosure structure offered more retreat options for the animals.     

Humoral immune response to avian influenza vaccination over a six-month period in different species of captive wild birds

In December 2005, the four major Swiss zoos carried out the vaccination of selected zoo birds with the adjuvant inactivated vaccine H5N2 Nobilis influenza. Pre- and post-vaccination antibody titers were determined either by hemagglutination inhibition (HI) test (non-Galliformes) or by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) (Galliformes) at Week 0, 5, 10, and 26 (Day 0-1, 35-36, 70-71, and 182 respectively) to determine the humoral immune response to H5 antigen. After the first vaccination, the overall geometric mean titer of non-Galliformes was 65 (n = 142), which increased to 187 (n = 139) after booster vaccination and dropped to 74 (n = 65) six months after first vaccination. For the Galliformes group, the mean titers were found to be 2.09 at Week 5 (n = 119), 3.24 at Week 10 (n = 113), and 1.20 at Week 26 (n = 39). Within the non-Galliformes, significant differences in geometric mean titers were found among different species representatives. In general, the flamingos (Phoenicopteriformes) showed a strong response to vaccination, reaching a geometric mean titer of 659 at Week 10, while the Sphenisciformes did not show high antibody titers even after booster vaccination, reaching a maximum geometric mean titer of only 65. Based on the antibody titer profiles of all investigated species, we recommend at least annual revaccination for the species that we investigated.     

Evaluation of the i-STAT portable clinical analyzer in chickens (Gallus gallus).

The i-STAT portable clinical analyzer (PCA) was evaluated for performance in avian species. With the EG7+ cartridge, which provided results for hydrogen ion concentration, oxygen tension, carbon dioxide tension, sodium, potassium, ionized calcium, hematocrit, and various calculated parameters, analytical accuracy and precision were tested by comparing obtained values to those of established traditional blood gas and chemistry analyzers. Deming's regression and bias plots were used to compare i-STAT results with those obtained by laboratory professionals using benchtop analyzers. The reliability of the i-STAT PCA with EG7+ cartridges was good, with 0-5.7% system failures in measured values. Regression statistics were good for all blood gas analytes and acceptable for electrolytes and calculated parameters, except for potassium and base excess, for which the regression data or the discrepancy between the methods was too large. The system was reliable and easy to use and had an overall acceptable accuracy in avian species. These features, together with portability and small required blood volumes, make the i-STAT suitable for point-of-care use in critical avian patients, although single values require careful interpretation.     

The use of sarmazenil in the treatment of a moxidectin intoxication in a foal

A13-day-old Arabian Thoroughbred filly weighing 40 kg (88 1b) was presented to the University of Zurich Equine Clinic with a history of depression after deworming with moxidectin at a dose of 2 mg/kg (recommended dose 0.4 mg/kg body weight)^a the day before admission. The foal was found recumbent 12 hours after drug administration and was in an unconscious state 6 hours later     

Immunochemical screening and liquid chromatographic-tandem mass spectrometric confirmation of drug residues in edible tissues of calves injected with a therapeutic dose of the synthetic glucocorticoids dexamethasone and flumethasone

A field study was performed to assess the drug residue level in edible tissues after a therapeutic application of the synthetic glucocorticoids dexamethasone and flumethasone. Three diseased calves were injected intramuscularly with a commercial batch of dexamethasone esters and slaughtered 72 h after treatment. Another three calves were injected intramuscularly with an aqueous flumethasone preparation and slaughtered 24 h later. Residues of synthetic glucocorticoids in liver, muscle, kidney, and urine were assessed by competitive enzyme immunoassay. All dexamethasone concentrations exceeded the maximal residue level of 0.75 microg/kg in muscle and kidney and 2 microg/kg in the liver. The presence of both dexamethasone and flumethasone in the liver was confirmed by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). These results indicate that liver tissue provides a suitable matrix to monitor the presence of illegal residues of synthetic glucocorticoids in slaughtered animals.     

Co-existence of genetically and antigenically diverse bovine viral diarrhoea viruses in an endemic situation

Bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) is an important cattle pathogen that causes acute or persistent infections. These are associated with immunotolerance to the viral strain persisting in animals that became infected early in their intrauterine development. To this date, the epidemiology of BVD in Switzerland runs virtually undisturbed by control measures such as restrictions on animal traffic or vaccination. Here, we analysed the viral genetics of 169 Swiss isolates and carried out crossed serum neutralisation tests to assess the antigenic spectrum of BVDV strains present in the cattle population. Besides confirming the presence of BVDV type 1 subgroups b, e, h and k, a single "orphan" BVDV-1 virus was detected that does not belong to any known BVDV-1 subgroup. No BVDV type 2 viruses were detected, suggesting that they are rare or not present in the cattle population. Antigenic comparison revealed significant differences between the different subgroups, with anti-1k immune serum having up to tenfold lower neutralising activity against 1b, 1e and 1h subgroup viruses, which however may still suffice to protect 1k-immune animals against superinfection by viruses of those other subgroups. Serum from routinely vaccinated animals revealed generally low titres but good cross-neutralisation. A geographic information system revealed that the viruses of the different subgroups are distributed in an apparently randomised fashion in the cattle population. This geographic distribution pattern may reflect peculiarities of the management practice in the Swiss cattle industry that, especially through annual transhumance of up to 25% of the entire population in the alpine region, tend to optimise the spread of BVDV.     

Comparison of five diagnostic methods for detecting bovine viral diarrhea virus infection in calves.

Five diagnostic techniques performed on skin biopsies (shoulder region) and/or serum were compared for detection of bovine viral diarrhea virus infection in 224 calves 0-3 months of age, 23 calves older than 3 months but younger than 7 months, and 11 cattle older than 7 months. The diagnostic methods used were immunohistochemistry (IHC), 2 commercial antigen ELISAs, 1 commercial antibody ELISA, and real-time RT-PCR. Results of 249 out of 258 skin and serum samples were identical and correlated within the 3 antigen detection methods and the real-time RT-PCR used. Twenty-six of these 249 samples were BVDV-positive with all antigen detection methods and the real-time RT-PCR. Nine out of 258 samples yielding discordant results were additionally examined by RT-PCR, RT-PCR Reamplification (ReA), and antigen ELISA I on serum and by immunohistochemistry on formalin fixed and paraffin-embedded skin biopsies. Virus isolation and genotyping was performed as well on these discordant samples. In 3 cases, transiently infected animals were identified. Two samples positive by real-time RT-PCR were interpreted as false positive and were ascribed to cross-contamination. The antigen ELISA II failed to detect 2 BVDV-positive calves due to the presence of maternal antibodies; the cause of 2 false-positive cases in this ELISA remained undetermined. Only persistently infected animals were identified in skin samples by IHC or antigen ELISA I. The 3 antigen detection methods and the real-time RT-PCR used in parallel had a high correlation rate (96.5%) and similar sensitivity and specificity values.     

Possible human-avian transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in a green-winged macaw (Ara chloroptera)

This report describes a case of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in a green-winged macaw (Ara chloroptera), confirmed by microbiologic and pathologic diagnostics, and notes a possible human-avian transmission. Clinical signs included cutaneous swellings, profound leukocytosis, and signs of osteomyelitis in the long bones. Proliferation consisted of several nodules with small greenish-caseous foci in cross-section and revealed a severe granulomatous inflammation with intralesional acid-fast rods. Mycobacterium tuberculosis was isolated from subcutaneous nodules and biochemically confirmed. The disease in avian species is of zoonotic importance.