Farmer perceptions on factors influencing water scarcity for goats in resource-limited communal farming environments

The objective of the study was to compare factors influencing water scarcity for goats in areas where there are seasonal and perennial rivers under resource-limited communal farming environments. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire (n?=?285) administered randomly to smallholder goat farmers from areas with seasonal and perennial rivers. Ceremonies was ranked as the major reason for keeping goats. Water scarcity was ranked the major constraint to goat production in areas with seasonal rivers when compared to areas with perennial rivers (P?<?0.05). Dams and rivers were ranked as the major water source for goat drinking in areas with seasonal and perennial river systems during cool dry and rainy seasons. Rivers were ranked as an important water source for goat drinking where there are seasonal and perennial river systems during the cool dry season. Households located close (≤?3 km) to the nearest water source reported drinking water for goats a scarce resource. These results show that river systems, season and distance to the nearest water source from a household were factors perceived by farmers to influence water scarcity for goats in resource-limited communal farming environments. Farmers should explore water-saving strategies such as recycling wastewater from kitchens and bathrooms as an alternative water source. The government may assist farmers through sinking boreholes to supply water for both humans and livestock.

     

Relationships between preference, rumen degradability, gas production and chemical composition of browses

The aim of this work was to assess whether degradability, gas production or chemical constituents could predict the preference of browses. Forty tropical browse species leaves with a crude protein (CP) content ranging from 79 to 307 g kg^-1 DM were used for this study. The neutral detergent fibre (NDF) ranged from 220 to 694 g kg^-1 DM, while acid detergent fibre (ADF) ranged from 146 to 523 g kg^-1 DM. The NDF-bound nitrogen (NDFN) and ADF-bound nitrogen were particularly high in Calliandra calothyrsus, Acacia polyacantha, Sesbania sesban, Acacia venosa and Acacia hockii. High levels of tannins were observed in Acacia species especially A. dolichocephala, A. hockii, A. microbotrya and A. salicina. High levels were also observed in Flemingia macrophyla and Leucaena pallida. The browse species differed (P < 0.05) in DM in sacco degradability coefficients. High potential degradability (PD) and effective degradability (ED) were observed in Sesbania spp, Moringa stenopetala, Indigofera arrecta, Chamaecytisus palmensis and Atriplex spp. The browses differed (P < 0.05) in asymptotic gas (Ag) production (ml g^-1 OM), but had similar (P > 0.05) times of incubation at which half of the asymptotic gas had been formed. Preference and DM intake were positively correlated (P < 0.01) to NDFN, but negatively correlated (P < 0.05) to NDF and ADF. The PD and Ag were negatively (P < 0.001) related to NDF, ADF and lignin. Total phenols (TP) and condensed tannins (CT) were negatively (P < 0.05) related to PD, ED and Ag. A positive correlation was observed between CT and NDF-bound condensed tannins (r = 0.55, P < 0.001) and, CT and TP (r = 0.40, P < 0.01). Prediction equations were poor for DM intake and preference, moderate for gas production and good for potential and effective degradabilities. The phenolic components were more related to dry matter degradation and gas production than to preference and dry matter intake. NDFN and Ag made a positive contribution to both preference and DM intake. It was concluded that chemical constitutes such as N, NDF, NDFN, ADF and lignin are essential to predict the nutritive value of browses. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

In vitro control of parasitic nematodes of small ruminants using some plant species containing flavonoids

This study determined in vitro anthelmintic efficacy of three plant species: Trema orientalis, Urtica dioica and Zanthozylum capense on nematode larvae of small ruminants. Dried leaf samples (40 g) were extracted in 70% ethanol, in portions of 10 g and concentrated to 100 ml. Half and one quarter of the original crude extract were both made to 100 ml. Rectal faecal material from 10 Merino sheep and 25 Nguni goats was pooled within species and thoroughly hand-mixed. Dung samples, each of 5 g were cultured for 12 days at 27 °C. On day 13, 4 plates were watered and 4 others treated with ethanol to correct for solvent effect on mortality. The design was 2 (animal species)?×?3 (plant species)?×?3 (extract concentrations). In each of three runs, three plates were treated with each crude extract in three incremental concentrations. Surviving L3 larvae were isolated, counted and mortalities became indices of anthelmintic efficacy. Data from nematode larval mortality were analysed to determine the effect of animal species, plant species, concentration and their interactions. Efficacy was affected by concentration (P?=?0.0001), animal species (P?=?0.0046), plant species (P?=?0.0572), the interactions of animal species and concentration (P?=?0.0010), plant species and concentration (P?=?0.0123) and concentration × animal × plant species (P?=?0.0435).     

The effects of shade on performance,carcass classes and behaviour of heat-stressed feedlot cattle at the finisher phase

The study aimed to determine the impact of shade on the performance, carcass class and behaviour using 146 crossbred steers and bulls during the finishing phase on a commercial feedlot in February. Treatments were (1) shade and (2) no shade. Average daily gain (ADG), DMI, and feed efficiency were measured, and hot carcass weight (HCW) and grades were collected at slaughter. The proportion of animals within a pen engaged in various behavioural activities (standing, lying, feeding and panting) was recorded. Five randomly selected individual animals per treatment were monitored every 2 min between 0700 and 1600 hours to determine the time spent on each of the above activities. Shade improved the final body weight (P  <  0.0001), ADG (P  =  0.079), and HCW by 8.33 kg (P  <  0.05). Shade increased (P  <  0.05) the feeding activity but decreased (P  <  0.05) panting behaviour. Shade conferred an economic benefit of R2.03 head⁻¹ week⁻¹, and thus would reduce heat stress and increase the feedlot profitability.     

A review of some characteristics,socio-economic aspects and utilization of Zulu sheep: implications for conservation

Zulu sheep are Nguni sheep of Zululand and are adapted to the harsh conditions of KwaZulu-Natal. They are used by rural farmers for economic purposes. Their numbers are declining, indicating a potential extinction threat. Knowledge of their phenotypic and genotypic characteristics is essential for conservation planning. In this review, there is a focus on the utilization, socio-economic aspects, phenotypic and genotypic characteristics as well as a proposed breeding programme. A survey has shown that rural farmers in the areas of northern KwaZulu-Natal prefer to keep this breed for its adaptability, resistance to diseases and meat quality. Zulu sheep are small-framed multi-coloured animals. Mature males weigh up to 38 kg and females up to 32 kg. Based on four morphological traits and live weight, phenotypic diversity between three populations was estimated at 48%. A genetic diversity between these three populations was estimated at 22%. Live weight of Zulu sheep can be estimated using the heart girth and wither height measurements. Scrotum circumference of young rams (up to 22 months old) is reliable for estimating the live weight. Animals that were characterized in the studies were grazed extensively and no supplements were provided. There is therefore a potential of weight increase if these animals are reared in a semi-extensive environment. An open nucleus breeding scheme is thus recommended for a sustainable use and conservation of this breed. For more conclusive results, larger numbers of phenotypic and genetic characteristics, in larger numbers of Zulu sheep populations, should be investigated.     

In vivo effect of selected medicinal plants against gastrointestinal nematodes of sheep

Nematode resistance to anthelmintic drugs affects small ruminant production globally. This study evaluated in vivo effects of five plant extracts as alternative nematode treatments. Animals were divided into six groups. Each group was randomly assigned a treatment: Abamectin and Praziquantel (CAP) (positive Control), ethanol extracts of Ananas comosus (AC), Aloe ferox (AF), Allium sativum (AS), Lespedeza cuneata (LC) and Warburgia salutaris (WS). These were applied as an oral dose (100 mg kg^?1 BW), one dose per week per sheep for 42 days (Phase 1). From day 42 sheep were orally dosed for 3 consecutive days with the same treatments in the same groups (Phase 2). Rectal faecal samples were taken every 7 days up to day 63. Eggs per gram of faeces were counted in individual rectal samples, L₃ larval stage was counted in faecal cultures, with four replicates per group. For plant extracts, EPG decreased (P?<?0.001) with time and efficacy of plant increased (P?<?0.001) with time. Ananas comosus and L. cuneata treatments had the highest efficacies of 58 % and 61 %, respectively, in Phase 1; and 77 % and 81 %, respectively, in Phase 2. Continuous treatment with these plants could further reduce nematode parasites and improve host health.     

Utilization of browse supplements with varying tannin levels by Ethiopian Menz sheep: 2. Nitrogen metabolism

The effect of different condensed tannins concentrations on protein metabolism from browse supplements was investigated in a 90-day trial using sixty-six male Ethiopian Menz sheep. Teff straw (Eragrostis tef) was fed ad libitum (control diet), or supplemented with 190 g dried leaves of six Sesbania sesban accessions with increasing levels of condensed tannin (S1, S2, S3, S4, S5 and S6), lablab (Dolichos lablab), tagasaste (Chamaecytisus palmensis), leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala) and goetzei (Sesbania goetzei) in a completely randomized block design. The condensed tannins were highest in goetzei; S6, S5 and leucaena, intermediate in S4, S3, S2 and S1, and lowest in tagasaste and lablab. The supplemented animals had significantly (P < 0.05) higher total dry matter and nitrogen (N) intake than the ones fed teff straw alone. The digestibility of N was lower for the control diet than for any other treatment (P < 0.05). S1 and S2 supplemented diets had significantly higher (P < 0.05) N digestibilities than all other diets. Faecal N, urinary N and urinary N per kg N excreted were significantly different (P < 0.0001) between diets. With increasing tannin levels (among Sesbania accessions) there was a significant decrease (P < 0.05) in urinary N (S1 > S2 > S3 > S4 > S5), and an increase (P < 0.05) in faecal N (S1 < S2 < S3 < S4 < S5). Supplementation increased faecal N output significantly (P < 0.0001) as well as the N retention. Among the forage supplements, N retention was significantly (P < 0.0001) lower in lablab-, tagasaste-, leucaena-, S4- and goetzei-supplemented diets, than for S1, S2, S5 and S6. Apparent nitrogen digestibility was positively correlated (P < 0.001) with the supplement dry matter and crude protein (CP) degradation after 24 h (r = 0.93 and r = 0.85, respectively), the CP content (r = 0.87), and was negatively correlated with acid detergent fibre and neutral detergent fibre (r = –0.87 and –0.87, respectively). The CP degradability characteristics of the forages differed (P < 0.001) in water solubility (93–470 g kg^-1 CP), rate of degradation (2.58–9.73 %/h), lag phase (–1.36–13.37 h), and estimated escape protein (262–619 g kg^-1 CP). With increasing tannin levels (among Sesbania accessions), there was a significant decrease (P < 0.0001) in the rate of degradation (S1 > S2 > S3 > S4 > S5), and an increase in the estimated escape protein. The estimated rumen degradable protein (supplements) varied from 482 to 744 g kg^-1 CP, while intestine digestible protein and the undegradable protein varied from 140 to 314 g kg^-1 CP, hence the browses can supply adequate levels of rumen degradable and bypass protein. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Utilization of browse supplements with varying tannin levels by Ethiopian Menz sheep: 1. Intake, digestibility and live weight changes

The effect of tannins in browse supplements on intake, digestibility and live weight changes was evaluated using sixty-six male Ethiopian Menz sheep in a 90-day trial. Teff straw (Eragrostis tef) was fed ad libitum (control diet), or supplemented with 190 g dried leaves of six Sesbania sesban accessions with increasing levels of condensed tannin (S1, S2, S3, S4, S5 and S6), lablab (Dolichos lablab), tagasaste (Chamaecytisus palmensis), leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala) and goetzei (Sesbania goetzei), in a completely randomized block design. The condensed tannins were highest in goetzei, S6, S5 and leucaena, intermediate in S4, S3, S2 and S1, and lowest in tagasaste and lablab. The forages differed significantly (P < 0.05) in their rates of degradation and truly undegradable dry matter. Lablab had lower water solubility and higher (P < 0.05) truly undegradable dry matter than the other browse supplements. With increasing tannin levels among Sesbania accessions, there was a significant decrease (P < 0.05) in the rate of degradation. Animals supplemented with forage legumes with low condensed tannin levels such as lablab, S1, S2, and S3 had a lower teff straw intake than those on the control diet. The converse was true for those fed with the high tannin supplements such as S4, S5, S6 and goetzei. Supplementation significantly (P < 0.05) increased total dry matter intake and live weight gains (LWG). The animals on the control diet lost weight (–1.9 g/kgW^0.75, while the supplemented animals gained between 2.9 and 4.4 g/kgW^0.75 daily. Leucaena supplementation promoted higher (P < 0.05) LWG than lablab, S1 and goetzei. With increasing tannin levels among Sesbania accessions, there was an increase (S1 < S2 < S3 < S4) followed by a decrease (S6 > S5 > goetzei) in LWG. The digestibilities of total DM and the supplements did not differ significantly (P < 0.05) between the diets, although the neutral detergent fibre (NDF) digestibility decreased significantly (P < 0.05) with supplementation. The control diet had significantly higher NDF digestibility than the leucaena, S3, S4, S5 and S6 supplemented diets. Results have beneficial attributes at low levels in ruminants. Condensed tannins confer important advantages in ruminant nutrition with respect to the prevention of excessive degradation of protein in the rumen. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Feed intake and dietary preferences of sheep and goats offered hay and legume-tree pods in South Africa

Two experiments were designed to investigate the effect of legume tree-pods and ensiling on the intake and relative palatability of six feeds by goats and sheep. In the first experiment, the feeds offered were pasture hay (Themeda triandra), alfalfa (Medicago sativa), pods of Acacia sieberiana, Acacia nilotica and Leucaena leucocephala. In the second, silage from the pods of A. sieberiana was included as the sixth feed in order to examine the effect of ensiling on intake and palatability since this process was devised as a means of detoxifying cyanogenic glocosides known to be present in the leaves and pods of this species. Intake (Ti) and relative palatability (Pi) were determined using 3 goats and 3 sheep in each experiment. Since the feeds had different dry matter contents, intake was expressed as a ratio of the quantity offered (Ti/Ai). Using the hay offered (A1) and intake (T1), as standard, relative palatability indices were calculated as Pi = (Ti/Ai)/(T1/A1) where i represented the other feeds. In experiment 1, goats consumed more hay than alfalfa or pods. Sheep consumed more leucaena than all the other feeds. In experiment 2, the intake of all feeds except nilotica increased over time. Hay and leucaena had the highest Pi for goats and sheep, respectively, in experiment 1. In experiment 2, silage from pods of A. sieberiana had the highest Pi while the ranking for goats remained unchanged. The nilotica meal had the lowest Pi in both experiments. Pi was affected (p > 0.0001) only by feed type in experiment 1 but in experiment 2, feed type, animal species and weight significantly (p > 0.01) affected Pi. The results show that the pods of L. leucocephala and A. nilotica were the most and least preferred by goats and sheep, respectively, and that ensiling significantly improved the intake and palatability of the pods of A. sieberiana. However, some feeds that are least preferred in times of abundance and variety could be relished during periods of scarcity and severe feed shortages, based on animal survival instinct.This revised version was published online in November 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.