Molecular Characterization of the Von Willebrand Factor Type D Domain of Vitellogenin from Takifugu flavidus

The von Willebrand factor type D (VWD) domain in vitellogenin has recently been found to bind tetrodotoxin. The way in which this protein domain associates with tetrodotoxin and participates in transporting tetrodotoxin in vivo remains unclear. A cDNA fragment of the vitellogenin gene containing the VWD domain from pufferfish (Takifugu flavidus) (TfVWD) was cloned. Using in silico structural and docking analyses of the predicted protein, we determined that key amino acids (namely, Val¹¹⁵, ASP¹¹⁶, Val¹¹⁷, and Lys¹²²) in TfVWD mediate its binding to tetrodotoxin, which was supported by in vitro surface plasmon resonance analysis. Moreover, incubating recombinant rTfVWD together with tetrodotoxin attenuated its toxicity in vivo, further supporting protein–toxin binding and indicating associated toxicity-neutralizing effects. Finally, the expression profiling of TfVWD across different tissues and developmental stages indicated that its distribution patterns mirrored those of tetrodotoxin, suggesting that TfVWD may be involved in tetrodotoxin transport in pufferfish. For the first time, this study reveals the amino acids that mediate the binding of TfVWD to tetrodotoxin and provides a basis for further exploration of the molecular mechanisms underlying the enrichment and transfer of tetrodotoxin in pufferfish.     

新型柱前衍生-高效液相荧光检测法检测水产品中河豚毒素

在稀碱条件下,河鲀毒素(TTX)与次溴酸钠和尿素于一定温度下反应生成具有荧光性能的物质,该反应与已报道的TTX在强碱下生成C-9碱的碱解不同。本研究拟对该衍生反应所需条件进行详细研究,并尝试依据该反应建立一种新型的河鲀毒素荧光检测方法。荧光扫描光谱显示,产物最大激发波长(EX)为233 nm,最大发射波长(EM)为370 nm。该反应对p H要求比较严格,反应最适p H在11.6~11.9之间。对样品进行衍生检测获得最强荧光信号的条件为:次溴酸钠0.036~0.09 mol/L、尿素10~50 g/L、碳酸钠0.2~0.3 mol/L,温度75℃。样品检测结果显示,此衍生反应具有高度专一性,信号强度与TTX含量成正比,在0.01~10μg/m L质量浓度范围内线性方程为y=109.17x+0.3965,线性相关系数为0.999。依据该衍生反应建立柱前衍生–高效液相色谱荧光检测法检测水产品中河鲀毒素含量,检测限达到20μg/kg,平行样品检测相对标准偏差为0.44%~7.25%,准确度高。对河鲀、虾虎鱼和织纹螺产品检测表明,该反应特异性强,不易出现假阳性,可用于河鲀毒素检测的确证。     

Selective Blocking Effects of 4,9-Anhydrotetrodotoxin,Purified from a Crude Mixture of Tetrodotoxin Analogues,on NaV1.6 Channels and Its Chemical Aspects

Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurotoxin found in a number of marine creatures including the pufferfish, where it is synthesized by bacteria and accumulated through the food chain. It is a potent and selective blocker of some types of voltage-gated Na⁺ channel (Na_V channel). 4,9-Anhydrotetrodotoxin (4,9-anhydroTTX) was purified from a crude mixture of TTX analogues (such as TTX, 4-epiTTX, 6-epiTTX, 11-oxoTTX and 11-deoxyTTX) by the use of liquid chromatography-fluorescence detection (LC-FLD) techniques. Recently, it has been reported that 4,9-anhydroTTX selectively blocks the activity of Na_V1.6 channels with a blocking efficacy 40–160 times higher than that for other TTX-sensitive Na_V1.x channel isoforms. However, little attention has been paid to the molecular properties of the α-subunit in Na_V1.6 channels and the characteristics of binding of 4,9-anhydroTTX. From a functional point of view, it is important to determine the relative expression of Na_V1.6 channels in a wide variety of tissues. The aim of this review is to discuss briefly current knowledge about the pharmacology of 4,9-anhydroTTX, and provide an analysis of the molecular structure of native Na_V1.6 channels. In addition, chemical aspects of 4,9-anhydroTTX are briefly covered.     

Tetrodotoxin,an Extremely Potent Marine Neurotoxin: Distribution,Toxicity, Origin and Therapeutical Uses

Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurotoxin responsible for many human intoxications and fatalities each year. The origin of TTX is unknown, but in the pufferfish, it seems to be produced by endosymbiotic bacteria that often seem to be passed down the food chain. The ingestion of contaminated pufferfish, considered the most delicious fish in Japan, is the usual route of toxicity. This neurotoxin, reported as a threat to human health in Asian countries, has spread to the Pacific and Mediterranean, due to the increase of temperature waters worldwide. TTX, for which there is no known antidote, inhibits sodium channel producing heart failure in many cases and consequently death. In Japan, a regulatory limit of 2 mg eq TTX/kg was established, although the restaurant preparation of “fugu” is strictly controlled by law and only chefs qualified are allowed to prepare the fish. Due to its paralysis effect, this neurotoxin could be used in the medical field as an analgesic to treat some cancer pains.     

动物携带河豚毒素的分子机制与生态作用

河豚毒素在自然界中分布广泛,从微生物到植物、动物都有发现.除河豚外,河豚毒素还在节肢动物、棘皮动物、软体动物、蠕虫、蝾螈、青蛙等其他物种中都有不同含量的分布.不同动物产生、富集河豚毒素的机制可能存在很大差别,但是河豚毒素对其携带动物在自然选择进化中发挥着重大的作用.目前中国对河豚毒素的研究主要集中在河豚毒素的分离纯化、检测分析及抗体制备等方面,而对河豚毒素产生的分子机制及生态作用的研究还很少,文章通过综述国外对河豚毒素分子机制及生态作用的研究,进一步阐释动物携带河豚毒素的分子机制及河豚毒素对动物的重要生态作用.     

Toxicity of cultured bullseye puffer fish Sphoeroides annulatus

The toxin content in various life cycle stages of tank-cultivated bullseye puffer (Sphoeroides annulatus) were analyzed by mouse bioassay and ESI-MS spectrometry analysis. The presence of toxin content was determined in extracts of sperm, eggs, embryo, larvae, post-larvae, juvenile, pre-adult, and adult fish, as well as in food items used during the cultivation of the species. Our findings show that only the muscle of juveniles, the viscera of pre-adults, and muscle, liver, and gonad of adult specimens were slightly toxic (<1 mouse unit). Thus, cultivated S. annulatus, as occurs with other cultivated puffer fish species, does not represent a food safety risk to consumers. This is the first report of toxin analysis covering the complete life stages of a puffer fish under controlled conditions.     

池养无毒暗纹东方鲀的人工繁殖

研究了温室(18～25℃)池养暗纹东方鲀性腺发育、人工繁殖和河鲀毒素.试验结果表明池养暗纹东方鲀雄鱼成熟系数二、三月份达到最大值分别为0.1480±0.0100和0.1317±0.0l40;三、四月份雌鱼成熟系数达到最大值分别为0.2440±0.0400和0.3058±0.0460.与野生的暗纹东方鲀相比较,经统计检验,P＞0.05,成熟系数无显著性差异.池养暗纹东方鲀不经降海洄游,性腺完全能发育成熟,能进行人工催产并孵化得苗,并且证明活体各部分均无毒或弱毒,这对于大规模开展暗纹东方鲀的人工养殖具有重要意义.     

Tetrodotoxin--distribution and accumulation in aquatic organisms, and cases of human intoxication

Many pufferfish of the family Tetraodontidae possess a potent neurotoxin, tetrodotoxin (TTX). In marine pufferfish species, toxicity is generally high in the liver and ovary, whereas in brackish water and freshwater species, toxicity is higher in the skin. In 1964, the toxin of the California newt was identified as TTX as well, and since then TTX has been detected in a variety of other organisms. TTX is produced primarily by marine bacteria, and pufferfish accumulate TTX via the food chain that begins with these bacteria. Consequently, pufferfish become non-toxic when they are fed TTX-free diets in an environment in which the invasion of TTX-bearing organisms is completely shut off. Although some researchers claim that the TTX of amphibians is endogenous, we believe that it also has an exogenous origin, i.e., from organisms consumed as food. TTX-bearing animals are equipped with a high tolerance to TTX, and thus retain or accumulate TTX possibly as a biologic defense substance. There have been many cases of human intoxication due to the ingestion of TTX-bearing pufferfish, mainly in Japan, China, and Taiwan, and several victims have died. Several cases of TTX intoxication due to the ingestion of small gastropods, including some lethal cases, were recently reported in China and Taiwan, revealing a serious public health issue.     

Diversity and Biosynthetic Potential of Culturable Microbes Associated with Toxic Marine Animals

Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a neurotoxin that has been reported from taxonomically diverse organisms across 14 different phyla. The biogenic origin of tetrodotoxin is still disputed, however, TTX biosynthesis by host-associated bacteria has been reported. An investigation into the culturable microbial populations from the TTX-associated blue-ringed octopus Hapalochlaena sp. and sea slug Pleurobranchaea maculata revealed a surprisingly high microbial diversity. Although TTX was not detected among the cultured isolates, PCR screening identifiedsome natural product biosynthesis genes putatively involved in its assembly. This study is the first to report on the microbial diversity of culturable communities from H. maculosa and P. maculata and common natural product biosynthesis genes from their microbiota. We also reassess the production of TTX reported from three bacterial strains isolated from the TTX-containing gastropod Nassarius semiplicatus.     

The Bacterial (Vibrio alginolyticus) Production of Tetrodotoxin in the Ribbon Worm Lineus longissimus—Just a False Positive?

We test previous claims that the bacteria Vibrio alginolyticus produces tetrodotoxin (TTX) when living in symbiosis with the nemertean Lineus longissimus by a setup with bacteria cultivation for TTX production. Toxicity experiments on the shore crab, Carcinus maenas, demonstrated the presence of a paralytic toxin, but evidence from LC-MS and electrophysiological measurements of voltage-gated sodium channel–dependent nerve conductance in male Wistar rat tissue showed conclusively that this effect did not originate from TTX. However, a compound of similar molecular weight was found, albeit apparently non-toxic, and with different LC retention time and MS/MS fragmentation pattern than those of TTX. We conclude that C. maenas paralysis and death likely emanate from a compound <5 kDa, and via a different mechanism of action than that of TTX. The similarity in mass between TTX and the Vibrio-produced low-molecular-weight, non-toxic compound invokes that thorough analysis is required when assessing TTX production. Based on our findings, we suggest that re-examination of some published claims of TTX production may be warranted.