Development of a Piscirickettsia salmonis immersion challenge model to investigate the comparative susceptibility of three salmon species

Piscirickettsia salmonis, the aetiological agent of salmonid rickettsial septicaemia (SRS), is a global pathogen of wild and cultured marine salmonids. Here, we describe the development and application of a reproducible, standardized immersion challenge model to induce clinical SRS in juvenile pink (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha), Atlantic (Salmo salar) and sockeye salmon (O. nerka). Following a 1‐hr immersion in 10⁵ colony‐forming units/ml, cumulative mortality in Atlantic salmon was 63.2% while mortality in sockeye salmon was 10%. Prevalence and levels of the bacterium in kidney prior to onset of mortality were lower in sockeye compared with Atlantic or pink salmon. The timing and magnitude of bacterial shedding were estimated from water samples collected during the exposure trials. Shedding was estimated to be 82‐fold higher in Atlantic salmon as compared to sockeye salmon and peaked in the Atlantic salmon trial at 36 d post‐immersion. These data suggest sockeye salmon are less susceptible to P. salmonis than Atlantic or pink salmon. Finally, skin lesions were observed on infected fish during all trials, often in the absence of detectable infection in kidney. As a result, we hypothesize that skin is the primary point of entry for P. salmonis during the immersion challenge.     

Piscine orthoreovirus: Biology and distribution in farmed and wild fish

Piscine orthoreovirus (PRV) is a common and widely distributed virus of salmonids. Since its discovery in 2010, the virus has been detected in wild and farmed stocks from North America, South America, Europe and East Asia in both fresh and salt water environments. Phylogenetic analysis suggests three distinct genogroups of PRV with generally discrete host tropisms and/or regional patterns. PRV-1 is found mainly in Atlantic (Salmo salar), Chinook (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) and Coho (Oncorhynchus kisutch) Salmon of Europe and the Americas; PRV-2 has only been detected in Coho Salmon of Japan; and PRV-3 has been reported primarily in Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in Europe. All three genotypes can establish high-load systemic infections by targeting red blood cells for principal replication. Each genotype has also demonstrated potential to cause circulatory disease. At the same time, high-load PRV infections occur in non-diseased salmon and trout, indicating a complexity for defining PRV's role in disease aetiology. Here, we summarize the current body of knowledge regarding PRV following 10 years of study.     

Comparing the behavioural thermoregulation response to heat stress by Atlantic salmon parr (Salmo salar) in two rivers

Climate change is expected to increase the frequency and magnitude of extreme thermal events in rivers. The Little Southwest Miramichi River (LSWM) and the Ouelle River (OR) are two Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) rivers located in eastern Canada, where in recent years, water temperatures have exceeded known thermal limits (~23°C). Once temperature surpasses this threshold, juvenile salmon exploit thermal heterogeneity to behaviourally thermoregulate, forming aggregations in coolwater refuges. This study aimed to determine whether the behavioural thermoregulation response is universal across rivers, arising from common thermal cues. We detailed the temperature and discharge patterns of two geographically distinct rivers from 2010 to 2012 and compared these with aggregation onset temperature. PIT telemetry and snorkelling were used to confirm the presence of aggregations. Mean daily maximum temperature in 2010 was significantly greater in the OR versus the LSWM (p = 0.005), but not in other years (p = 0.090–0.353). Aggregations occurred on 14 and 9 occasions in the OR and LSWM respectively. Temperature at onset of aggregation was significantly greater in the OR (T_onset = 28.3°C) than in the LSWM (T_onset = 27.3°C; p = 0.049). Logistic regression models varied by river and were able to predict the probability of aggregation based on the preceding number of hours >23°C (R² = 0.61 & 0.65; P₅₀ = 27.4°C & 28.9°C; in the OR and LSWM respectively). These results imply the preceding local thermal regime may influence behaviour and indicate a degree of phenotypic plasticity, illustrating a need for localised management strategies.     

Density-dependent effects on salmonid populations: A review

We reviewed 199 published data sets (21 species) to assess the relative frequency of various density-dependent processes in salmonids. We examined studies for the presence or absence of density-dependence: in growth, mortality, fecundity and recruitment. Based on data from all studies pooled 71% showed density-dependence in growth, 23% found density-dependence in mortality, 2% detected density-dependence in fecundity and 4% displayed density-dependence in recruitment. Most studies at the population level (e.g. changes in abundance or means of growth, mortality or fecundity) demonstrated density-dependence; however, these studies were not common, likely because they require long time series of data (at least 3–4 times mean generation time for the species). Our review indicated there was no evidence that the probability of finding density-dependent effects differed among the 21 species examined, but the number of studies per species varied substantially (5 [minimum for analysis] – 20+); hence, this finding should be viewed as tentative. Most salmonid species showed evidence of density-dependence in growth; however, few studies examined density-dependent effects on fecundity or recruitment, and further study is needed on these phenomena. There was no evidence that density-dependent effects were restricted to a particular habitat type or geographic region.     

Genome‐wide association analysis of salmon lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis) resistance in a North American Atlantic salmon population

Our objective was to detect single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with resistance to the salmon louse in the Saint John River aquacultural population of North American Atlantic salmon using estimated breeding values (EBVs) and 6K genotypes from the parent‐generation and lice count phenotypes from the challenged, but ungenotyped, offspring‐generation. In 2011 and 2012, we challenged recent smolts with approximately 100 copepodids each. Fish were euthanized once the lice reached the chalimus stages and lice count, sex, tank and salt water weight were recorded. We used a multiple trait model to estimate breeding values for the parent‐generation using their own fresh water weights and the salt water weights and lice counts of the offspring‐generation. Salmon lice count heritability for untransformed and transformed data was 0.17 and 0.29 respectively. Two different genome‐wide association study methods were compared: (i) forward multiple linear regression and (ii) a mixed linear model using principal components to correct for population stratification as implemented in the egscore function of GenABEL. The two methods detected different SNPs located on different chromosomes. The multiple regression method incorporated 70 SNPs found on chromosomes 2, 7, 9, 12, 14, 15, 21, 22, 1p/23, 24. Many SNPs entered into the forward multiple regression are likely to be false positives from not correcting for the observed population stratification and cryptic relatedness. In contrast, the mixed linear model identified only two SNPs, one on chromosome 1p/23 (6.9%) and one on chromosome 1q (6.1%) consistent with louse‐resistance being a quantitative trait.     

大麻哈鱼不同月龄形态性状对体质量的影响

【目的】研究影响不同月龄大麻哈鱼(Oncorhynchus keta)体质量的重点形态性状,掌握其不同生长阶段的生长特点,为大麻哈鱼规模化人工养殖及其资源深度开发利用奠定基础。【方法】在恒温封闭循环海水系统中人工养殖4月龄、8月龄、19月龄和32月龄野生一代大麻哈鱼,在养殖过程中测定其体质量、叉长、全长、吻长、头长、眼径、尾柄长、尾柄高、体高、头高和体宽等11个性状,采用数理统计方法,对各形态性状之间的相关性进行分析,拟合出能够评估不同月龄体质量的回归方程。【结果】不同月龄大麻哈鱼各形态性状指标中体质量的变异系数均为最大,且随着月龄的增加,变异系数越大,说明大麻哈鱼在实际选择育种过程中潜力较大。相关性分析表明,4月龄大麻哈鱼各性状之间呈现出显著(P0.05)或极显著(P0.01)相关性,8,19和32月龄大麻哈鱼各性状之间均呈现出极显著(P0.01)相关性;通径分析结果表明,影响4月龄和32月龄大麻哈鱼体质量的关键性状指标为全长、体高和体宽,8月龄为叉长、体高、体宽、尾柄高和头高,而19月龄则是叉长、体高、体宽和尾柄高,各月龄形态性状对大麻哈鱼体质量的总决定系数分别为0.887,0.890,0.853和0.901,均在85%以上。通过多元逐步回归分析方法建立以形态性状为自变量、体质量为因变量的多元回归方程,剔除与体质量相关性不显著的形态性状,所得方程保留的形态指标与通径分析结果一致。【结论】大麻哈鱼生长过程中体质量与各形态性状之间的相关关系,可以有效应用于大麻哈鱼的人工养殖选择育种及保种。     

Effect of hydrogen peroxide as treatment for amoebic gill disease in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) in different temperatures

Amoebic gill disease (AGD) is a pathogenic disease in salmonids caused by Neoparamoeba perurans. Treatment of AGD infection has been through freshwater bathing of the fish. However, as the availability of fresh water is often limited, hydrogen peroxide has been introduced as an alternative treatment. This study investigated the effect of hydrogen peroxide as treatment for AGD‐infected salmon (Salmo salar L.,) at different seawater temperatures and hydrogen peroxide dosages. In total, 600 fish were challenged with N. perurans and the severity of the AGD infection was measured using a gill score scale. After challenge and disease development, the fish were distributed into 12 tanks. The treatment was performed at different seawater temperatures (8°C, 12°C, 17°C) using different hydrogen peroxide doses. Each temperature included an untreated control group. Linear models were used to analyse gill score. A significant effect of treatment was found (?0.68 ± 0.05) regardless of dose and temperature, suggesting that hydrogen peroxide was effective in treating AGD. When the model included dose, a negative linear relationship between dose and gill score was found. The study proved that treatment of AGD with hydrogen peroxide was successful, as gills partially recovered following treatment and further disease development was delayed.     

氨基修饰二氧化硅对Cr^3+和直接桃红B12的吸附

该试验以硅烷偶联剂KH-550为改性剂,乙醇为溶剂合成氨基二氧化硅。利用红外光谱、扫描电镜、原子吸收光谱、可见分光光度法对改性前后SiO 2进行表征,研究其对铬离子及染料直接桃红B12的吸附情况。结果表明:25℃恒温振荡20 min,改性SiO 2吸附重金属离子Cr^3+效果明显,当其用量为0.04 g时,吸附率达99.01%,而相同条件下未改性SiO 2对Cr^3+吸附率只有25.13%;将其用于染料直接桃红B12的吸附,改性后SiO 2吸附率达91.97%,相同条件下未改性SiO 2的吸附率仅为34.23%。     

In vivo growth and genomic characterization of rickettsia‐like organisms isolated from farmed Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) in New Zealand

A rickettsia‐like organism, designated NZ‐RLO2, was isolated from Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) farmed in the South Island, New Zealand. In vivo growth showed NZ‐RLO2 was able to grow in CHSE‐214, EPC, BHK‐21, C6/36 and Sf21 cell lines, while Piscirickettsia salmonis LF‐89^T grew in all but BHK‐21 and Sf21. NZ‐RLO2 grew optimally in EPC at 15°C, CHSE‐214 and EPC at 18°C. The growth of LF‐89 ^T was optimal at 15°C, 18°C and 22°C in CHSE‐24, but appeared less efficient in EPC cells at all temperatures. Pan‐genome comparison of predicted proteomes shows that available Chilean strains of P. salmonis grouped into two clusters (p‐value = 94%). NZ‐RLO2 was genetically different from previously described NZ‐RLO1, and both strains grouped separately from the Chilean strains in one of the two clusters (p‐value = 88%), but were closely related to each other. TaqMan and Sybr Green real‐time PCR targeting RNA polymerase (rpoB) and DNA primase (dnaG), respectively, were developed to detect NZ‐RLO2. This study indicates that the New Zealand strains showed a closer genetic relationship to one of the Chilean P. salmonis clusters; however, more Piscirickettsia genomes from wider geographical regions and diverse hosts are needed to better understand the classification within this genus.     

枣果贮藏期红粉病菌鉴定及环境因子对其分生孢子萌发的影响

在山西省临县、太谷县发现枣贮藏期红粉病,发病初期果实表面出现圆形或椭圆形的白色絮状霉点,后期形成较厚粉状霉层。从病样中分离获得2株代表性菌株,通过病原菌分离培养、致病性测定、形态学特征及ITS序列特征分析,确定引起枣贮藏期红粉病的致病菌为粉红单端孢(Trichothecium roseum)。适合该病菌分生孢子萌发的温度为20℃~25℃,相对湿度为大于75%,pH=4~10,致死温度为48℃、处理10 min。适宜芽管生长的温度为20℃~25℃,相对湿度为大于75%,最适pH=6。本研究结果可为枣贮藏期红粉病的诊断和防治措施的制定提供理论依据。