Concentrations and fluxes of dissolved organic carbon and nitrogen in a Picea abies chronosequence on former arable land in Sweden

Shifting land use from agriculture to forestry induces major changes in the carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) cycles, including fluxes of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and nitrogen (DON). This study investigated the long-term effects of afforestation on ecosystem DOC and DON dynamics using a chronosequence approach comprising four arable fields and nine differently aged (10–92 years) Norway spruce stands growing on similar former arable soils in the same area. Along the chronosequence, concentrations and fluxes of DOC and DON were determined in bulk precipitation, throughfall, O horizon leachate and mineral soil solution during a 2–3-year period. Soil water fluxes were calculated using a soil hydrological model (SWAP). Results showed that DOC concentrations and fluxes with throughfall were strongly positively correlated with tree height (r² = 0.95; P < 0.05 for both conc. and flux) and stand age, while DON showed no such trends, suggesting different origins of DOC and DON in throughfall. The highest concentrations and fluxes of DOC and DON occurred in soil leachate from the O horizon. Here, DOC flux was 250–310 kg C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ and DON flux 8–9 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ in stands afforested between 65 and 92 years ago. Concentrations and fluxes of DOC and DON in the mineral subsoil were consistently low. Flux calculations suggest that there was a net loss of >90% (230–280 kg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) of DOC leached from the O horizon within 0–60 cm of the mineral soil. There was no significant effect of land use or forest age on DOC concentrations in solution from the lower part of the A horizon. The effect of time since afforestation was masked by soil properties that influence DOM retention in the mineral soil. Our data indicate that DOC concentrations in the A horizon of the sites studied were primarily related to the oxalate-extractable Al and Fe amounts in the same horizon. Afforestation of arable land induced a gradual qualitative change in soil organic matter (SOM) and dissolved organic matter (DOM), with significantly increasing C:N ratios in soil and soil solution over time. The development of an O horizon and the subsequent leaching of DOC and DON to the underlying mineral soil are important drivers of a changing soil C and N turnover following afforestation.     

Using landscape and depth gradients to decouple the impact of correlated environmental variables on soil microbial community composition

Simultaneously assessing shifts in microbial community composition along landscape and depth gradients allows us to decouple correlations among environmental variables, thus revealing underlying controls on microbial community composition. We examined how soil microbial community composition changed with depth and along a successional gradient of native prairie restoration. We predicted that carbon would be the primary control on both microbial biomass and community composition, and that deeper, low-carbon soils would be more similar to low-carbon agricultural soils than to high carbon remnant prairie soils. Soil microbial community composition was characterized using phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) analysis, and explicitly linked to environmental data using structural equations modeling (SEM). We found that total microbial biomass declined strongly with depth, and increased with restoration age, and that changes in microbial biomass were largely attributable to changes in soil C and/or N concentrations, together with both direct and indirect impacts of root biomass and magnesium. Community composition also shifted with depth and age: the relative abundance of sulfate-reducing bacteria increased with both depth and restoration age, while gram-negative bacteria declined with depth and age. In contrast to prediction, deeper, low-C soils were more similar to high-C remnant prairie soils than to low-C agricultural soils, suggesting that carbon is not the primary control on soil microbial community composition. Instead, the effects of depth and restoration age on microbial community composition were mediated via changes in available phosphorus, exchangeable calcium, and soil water, together with a large undetermined effect of depth. Only by examining soil microbial community composition shifts across sites and down the soil column simultaneously were we able to tease apart the impact of these correlates environmental variables.     

Organic matter turnover in soil physical fractions following woody plant invasion of grassland: Evidence from natural C and N

Soil physical structure causes differential accessibility of soil organic carbon (SOC) to decomposer organisms and is an important determinant of SOC storage and turnover. Techniques for physical fractionation of soil organic matter in conjunction with isotopic analyses (δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N) of those soil fractions have been used previously to (a) determine where organic C is stored relative to aggregate structure, (b) identify sources of SOC, (c) quantify turnover rates of SOC in specific soil fractions, and (d) evaluate organic matter quality. We used these two complementary approaches to characterize soil C storage and dynamics in the Rio Grande Plains of southern Texas where C₃ trees/shrubs (δ¹³C=−27‰) have largely replaced C₄ grasslands (δ¹³C=−14‰) over the past 100-200 years. Using a chronosequence approach, soils were collected from remnant grasslands (Time 0) and from woody plant stands ranging in age from 10 to 130 years. We separated soil organic matter into specific size/density fractions and determined their C and N concentrations and natural δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N values. Mean residence times (MRTs) of soil fractions were calculated based on changes in their δ¹³C with time after woody encroachment. The shortest MRTs (average=30 years) were associated with all particulate organic matter (POM) fractions not protected within aggregates. Fine POM (53-250 μm) within macro- and microaggregates was relatively more protected from decay, with an average MRT of 60 years. All silt+clay fractions had the longest MRTs (average=360 years) regardless of whether they were found inside or outside of aggregate structure. δ¹⁵N values of soil physical fractions were positively correlated with MRTs of the same fractions, suggesting that higher δ¹⁵N values reflect an increased degree of humification. Increased soil C and N pools in wooded areas were due to both the retention of older C₄-derived organic matter by protection within microaggregates and association with silt+clay, and the accumulation of new C₃-derived organic matter in macroaggregates and POM fractions.     

Above- and belowground ecosystem biomass and carbon pools in an age-sequence of temperate pine plantation forests

We assessed the successional development of above- and belowground ecosystem biomass and carbon (C) pools in an age-sequence of four White pine (Pinus strobus L.) plantation stands (2-, 15-, 30-, and 65-years-old) in Southern Ontario, Canada. Biomass and C stocks of above- and belowground live and dead tree biomass, understorey and forest ground vegetation, forest floor C (LFH-layer), and woody debris were determined from plot-level inventories and destructive tree sampling. Small root biomass (<5 mm) and mineral soil C stocks were estimated from soil cores. Aboveground tree biomass became the major ecosystem C pool with increasing age, reaching 0.5, 66, 92, and 176 t ha⁻¹ in the 2-, 15-, 30-, and 65-year-old stands, respectively. Tree root biomass increased from 0.1 to 10, 18, 38 t ha⁻¹ in the 2-, 15-, 30-, and 65-year-old stands, respectively, contributing considerably to the total ecosystem C in the three older stands. Forest floor C was 0.8, 7.5, 5.4, and 12.1 t C ha⁻¹ in the 2-, 15-, 30-, and 65-year-old stands, respectively, indicating an increase during the first two decades, but no further age-effect during the later growth phase. Mineral soil C was age-independent with 37.2, 33.9, 39.1, and 36.7 t C ha⁻¹ in the 2-, 15-, 30-, and 65-year-old stands, respectively. Aboveground ecosystem C increased with age from 3 to 40, 52, and 100 t C ha⁻¹ in the 2-, 15-, 30-, and 65-year-old stands, respectively, due to an increase in aboveground tree biomass. Belowground ecosystem C remained similiar in the early decades after establishment with 37, 39, and 39 t C ha⁻¹ in the 2-, 15-, and 30-year-old stands, but increased to 56 t C ha⁻¹ in the 65-year-old stand due to an increase in root biomass. The difference in total ecosystem C between the 2- and 65-year-old stand was 116 t C ha⁻¹. Our results highlight the importance of considering the successional development of forest ecosystem C pools, when estimating C sink potentials over their complete life cycle.     

水耕人为土时间序列的植硅体及其闭留碳演变特征

以浙江慈溪滨海沉积物上发育的5个具有不同植稻年龄的水耕人为土剖面为研究对象,系统分析了土壤中的植硅体及其闭留碳的演变特征。结果表明,水耕人为土时间序列土壤中植硅体的含量变幅为3.67~17.51 g kg-1。水耕人为土中植硅体的剖面分布特征与有机碳相似,呈现出随着土壤深度的增加含量逐渐降低的趋势。其剖面分布特征表明植硅体在水耕人为土中不易移动。与起源土相比,水耕人为土表层植硅体含量有较大程度的增加,说明植稻有利于植硅体在土壤表层富集。而植硅体随植稻年龄的增加没有表现出有规律的增加或减少趋势。统计分析表明植硅体和总硅之间呈极显著正相关,说明植硅体对土壤发生中的硅循环起着重要作用。水稻产生的植硅体其体内闭留的碳量较高,但由于土体内植硅体总量较低,植硅体闭留碳仅占总有机碳的0.93%~1.68%。现有数据表明,仅通过根系与残茬返还土壤,种植富硅植物水稻并不能显著增强土壤的长期固碳能力。由于植硅体固定的碳在土壤环境中比较稳定,如果能强化秸秆还田,植稻对于土壤长期固碳具有意义。     

热带地区时间序列土壤中伊利石类矿物的演化——P.Barré假设在热带地区土壤中也存在吗?

P.Barré等认为温带地区自然土壤中,由于植物根系将下层土壤中的钾和硅向上搬运,减缓了上层土壤中伊利石类矿物(混层伊利石/蒙皂石+伊利石)脱钾和脱硅过程,致使其长时间地存在较多的伊利石类矿物。本文旨在了解热带地区土壤中这一假设是否也存在,以海南琼北地区发育于由不同年代火山喷发形成的玄武岩所构成的时间序列土壤(1×104a,(9.0±2.0)×104a,(14.6±0.9)×104a,64×104a,(133±18)×104a,(181±8)×104a)为对象,利用X-射线衍射(XRD)技术分析了其黏土矿物的变化情况,结合土壤钾、硅、活性硅的分析结果,发现伊利石类矿物仅存在于(133±18)×104a以前的土壤中,表层土壤中钾和硅的含量高于下层的土壤,活性硅含量随成土年龄而降低。为此,我们认为:P.Barré假设在热带土壤形成发育过程中,在具有一定的生物复钾和复硅条件下,在成土初期也会存在,但最终会由于土壤强烈的脱钾和脱硅作用而逐步消失。     

Variation in NH4 mineralization and microbial communities with stand age in lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) forests, Yellowstone National Park (USA)

Soils and vegetation were analyzed in 20 lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) forest stands, varying in age from 50 to 350 years, that had initiated following stand-replacing fire. Our goal was to determine how nitrogen availability (NH₄⁺-N) and microbial community composition varied with stand age-class and to determine whether differences could be explained by canopy, soil, or understory characteristics. Gross NH₄⁺ mineralization was measured using laboratory isotopic pool dilution, and microbial community composition was evaluated using microbial membrane lipids. The microbial community composition of stands in the 300-350 age class was distinct from stands in younger age classes. Microbial community composition among sites varied with pH, % organic matter, and phosphorus. Gross NH₄⁺ mineralization rates averaged 1.45±0.07 mg NH₄⁺ kg soil⁻¹ d⁻¹ while consumption averaged 1.37±0.20 mg NH₄⁺ kg soil⁻¹ d⁻¹, resulting in low net NH₄⁺ mineralization rates (0.08±0.18 mg NH₄⁺ kg soil⁻¹ d⁻¹), but rates were not significantly different with stand age-class at p<0.05. At p<0.10, net NH₄⁺ mineralization was significantly higher in the 300-350 age class compared to the 125-175 age class. None of the measured variables significantly explained NH₄⁺ consumption and net mineralization patterns. However, gross NH₄⁺ mineralization rates were best explained by information on microbial community structure (i.e. lipids). Variation among stands within a given age-classes was high, indicating that patterns of N cycling across landscapes reflect substantial heterogeneity among mature stands.     

Recovery of topsoil characteristics after landslip erosion in dry hill country of New Zealand, and a test of the space-for-time hypothesis

The rate of development of topsoil is an important characteristic for soil resilience and sustainable use. We located a chronosequence (1-59 yr) of recovering landslip scars in erodible siltstone hill country under permanent pasture for sheep farming in New Zealand. We measured the rates of recovery in microbial C, respiration, catabolic diversity, phosphatase, sulphatase and invertase activities, pH, total C, total N, C/N ratio, potentially mineralizable N, total P, Olsen P, cation-exchange capacity, bulk density, particle density, porosity, available water and aggregate stability (0-10 cm depth). A subset of the same sites was sampled again after a 14-yr interval, enabling us to test whether rates of change estimated by resampling the same sites were the same as those estimated from a single time sample from the chronosequence (the space-for-time hypothesis).Most topsoil characteristics had recovered to 71-85% of those in the non-slipped sites after 59 yr. Exceptions were soil respiration, invertase and sulphatase activities, and bulk density, which recovered to 94-110% of the values of the non-slipped sites. There was little change in soil pH, total P, Olsen P, exchangeable cations and water storage along the chronosequence. An asymptote model fitted the patterns of recovery in biochemical characteristics, organic matter, bulk density and particle density. Recovery (to 90% of the asymptote value) was most rapid for the C/N ratio (5 yr) and longest for particle density (79 yr); most other characteristics fell in an 18-50 yr range. Overall, a single sampling of a chronosequence of matched landslip scars was as reliable to estimate rates of recovery as was resampling individual sites through time. Total C and N were as effective as more complicated biochemical measures to monitor the recovery of topsoil.     

Measuring soil disturbance effects and assessing soil restoration success by examining distributions of soil properties

Successful restoration of an ecosystem following disturbance is typically assessed according to similarity between the restored site and a relatively undisturbed reference area. While most comparisons use the average or mean parameter to represent measured properties, other aspects of the distribution, including the variance of the properties may assist in a more robust assessment of site recovery. Our purpose was to compare soil properties in different ages of reclaimed soils with those in reference areas by incorporating the potentially different distributions according to areas. On two sampling dates, in consecutive years, we examined soil properties on a chronosequence of reclaimed natural gas pipelines spanning recovery ages of <1–54 years, obtaining data on soil moisture, organic carbon, nitrogen, electrical conductivity, pH, and microbial abundance. To make the comparisons, we analyzed our data with a Bayesian hierarchical linear mixed model and obtained posterior predictive distributions for the soil properties. This allowed us to probabilistically quantify the extent to which a soil property from a reclaimed treatment was similar to that from an undisturbed reference. We found that the posterior predictive variance of most soil properties was particularly sensitive to disturbance and reclamation, especially, within the first few years of recovery. Response of this variance to disturbance, reclamation, and recovery was not necessarily accompanied by a shift in the posterior predictive mean value of the property. Patterns for all soil properties changed over time, with posterior predictive distributions of soil properties generally becoming more similar to those of the undisturbed reference sites as recovery time increased. We suspect these trends in altered variability coincide with the degree of spatial heterogeneity in soil properties that results following disturbance and reclamation, which is also coupled to patterns of vegetation recovery.     

滨海沉积物发育的水稻土时间序列母质均一性判定与特性演变

时间序列方法是研究土壤发生特性演变的重要途径,而比较土壤变化的重要前提之一是序列中的土壤具有相同的起源,即具有母质的相对均一性。本研究根据史料记载中浙江慈溪海塘修筑年代估计出水稻土的耕作年龄,选择了植稻年龄约为50、300、500、700、1000a以及一个未垦滩涂剖面组成的一个时间序列作为研究对象。利用各种土壤属性参数对该时间序列的母质不连续性(或母质均一性)以及水稻土相对年龄进行了判定和验证。结果表明,时间序列的6个剖面虽然具有微小的差异,但其剖面内与剖面间母质来源相同。在水稻土母质不连续性判定中,去除黏粒的粉粒与粉粒中稳定元素Ti/Zr比值具有较好的指示作用。相对易变的土壤属性参数如碳酸钙、磁化率以及游离铁的剖面分异程度在水稻土相对年龄的判定中具有较好的指示作用。综合这些参数在时间序列中的演化趋势,发现500a剖面与整个序列的变化趋势不相符合,可能是利用历史的差异所致,在相关的性质演变研究中应该从序列中剔除。