Harmonisation, standardisation for soil and sediment fractionation studies, and usefulness in assessment and risk management

Single and sequential extraction procedures are often used to study the environmental fate of trace elements from soils and sediments. Although these schemes are quite popular, they are prone to various sources of errors, which require them to be thoroughly controlled. Owing to their operationally-defined character, the only way to compare analytical data is to stick closely to procedures that have been collaboratively studied and written in the form of an operating protocol. Groups of scientists have hence developed ‘harmonised’ procedures that are used as a reference for fractionation studies. A higher level is the formal standardisation of the procedures by official standardisation bodies, which also fulfils the need for achieving the comparability of data obtained by different laboratories from different countries. This paper discusses aspects of harmonisation (consensus obtained by groups of scientists) and standardisation (adoption of standards as mandated by an international organisation) as applied to single and extraction schemes for trace element fractionation studies, including quality control aspects.     

厦门贝类养殖区沉积物中重金属的污染水平及其潜在生态危害

根据2005年4月和10月厦门贝类养殖区环境调查资料,着重对贝类养殖区表层沉积物中重金属的含量水平进行分析,并对贝类养殖区的表层沉积物进行质量评价及潜在生态危害评价.结果表明:厦门贝类养殖区沉积物中Cu、Pb、Cd、Zn、Hg、As的平均含量分别为20.0mg.kg-1,39.5mg.kg-1,0.07mg.kg-1,97.3mg.kg-1,0.05mg.kg-1,7.20mg.kg-1.其中同安湾北部和湾顶养殖区及西海域的杏林、东山养殖区,6种元素的含量均较高;位于同安湾的刘五店、澳头养殖区,含量均较低.沉积物质量评价结果表明,贝类养殖区沉积物中重金属的含量符合第一类海洋沉积物质量标准,属于较清洁水平.Hg、As和Cd的潜在生态危害系数大于Cu、Pb、Zn,整个养殖区沉积物中重金属为轻微生态危害,养殖环境良好.     

百花湖麦西河口底泥中重金属垂直分布特征及生态危害

为揭示贵阳市百花湖麦西河口不同年代重金属的污染情况,同时为其防治提供科学依据,采用SWB-1型柱状采泥器采集底泥柱状剖面样,选取柱状样界面水澄清及垂直剖面分层清晰完整的底泥柱,研究重金属Hg、Cd、Cu、Zn、Pb、As的垂直分布特征,同时采用潜在生态危害指数法对重金属进行潜在的生态危害评价。结果表明:根据参照标准的不同,不同重金属元素含量超出标准值的大小顺序不同,以土壤环境质量标准作参照,百花湖麦西河口底泥中Hg>Cu>Cd>Zn>As>Pb;以中国湖泊沉积物重金属含量的平均值作参照,Hg>Cu>Zn>As>Cd>Pb;以贵阳市土壤背景值作参照,Hg>Cd>Cu>Zn>Pb>As,其中,Hg污染最严重。重金属Hg含量随深度和年代的变化呈锯齿状多峰分布特征,其他重金属随底泥深度的增加其含量变化相对较为平缓。单一元素潜在生态危害系数顺序Eir为Hg>Cd>Cu>As>Pb>Zn,潜在生态危害指数RI平均值为392.35,达到较强水平。说明,麦西河口底泥中重金属的潜在生态危害程度比较严重。     

28条环太湖河流沉积物氮的分布特征

测定了太湖流域不同污染控制区中28条主要环湖河流河口处表层0～10cm沉积物中氨氮(NH3-N)、硝氮(NO-3-N)、有机氮(Org-N)及总氮(TN)含量,揭示氮的空间分布并分析各形态氮之间的相关性。结果表明,环湖河流表层沉积物中TN含量由高到低依次为东部污染控制区>北部区>湖西区>浙西污染控制区,平均958.70mg.kg-1,且以东部污染控制区中吴溇河口最高,污染最重。NH3-N含量远高于NO-3-N,平均200.29mg.kg-1;Org-N含量及分布与TN相似,平均758.40mg.kg-1,占TN的39.27%～95.12%。NH3-N是可交换态氮(EN)的主要存在形式,Org-N是沉积物中氮的主导形态,沉积物中TN只有极少部分在成岩过程中发生矿化。     

底泥中多环芳烃的测定

介绍运用微波萃取提取底泥中多环芳烃的技术,在优化的试验条件下,采用气象色谱—质谱法测定底泥中的16种多环芳烃,运用加标回收率验证试验方法的可行性。结果表明:采用微波消解和硅胶净化柱对样品进行前处理,方法简便,安全,样品量大,耗时短,节省溶剂,污染小,样品加标回收率为67.353%～101.666%,效果较为理想。     

海口湾东部表层沉积物重金属污染特征及生态风险评价

对海口湾东部10个表层沉积物中的重金属元素进行了分析,并运用Hakanson潜在生态危害指数法,对重金属的污染程度和潜在生态风险程度进行了评价。研究结果表明,表层沉积物中7种重金属平均含量高低依次为CrZnPbCuAsCdHg;重金属平均污染程度由高到低依次AsCrCdCuPbZnHg,As污染指数最高,属于中污染水平,其余各重金属处于低污染,7种重金属综合污染程度属于低水平;重金属的潜在生态风险大小依次为CdAsHgCuPbCrZn,Cd是主要的潜在生态风险因子,研究区域内重金属总的潜在生态风险程度低。该研究为了解海口湾东部海域重金属的污染现状提供了科学依据。     

黄土高原梯田和淤地坝坡沟治理措施对产流产沙的协同效应

黄土高原地区的梯田和淤地坝措施发挥了重要的水土保持功能,然而现有的研究主要关注单个措施的减水减沙效应,对坡沟治理措施综合配置协同调控水沙过程的作用一直认识不清。因此,该研究为解析梯田和淤地坝措施对水沙过程的协同调控效应,构建了10个坡沟系统物理模型,设置了对照组（CO）,单一措施组（梯田措施（T0）,4种因淤地坝淤积导致坡沟区域的坡长缩短（L1、L2、L3和L4））和组合措施组（梯田与4种因淤地坝淤积导致坡沟区域的坡长缩短的综合配置（T1、T2、T3和T4））,进行降雨强度为90 mm/h的室内模拟降雨试验,量化不同试验方案下坡沟系统的产流产沙过程。结果表明：1）梯田措施和淤地坝淤积导致坡沟区域坡长缩短均有效调控了坡沟系统的产流产沙过程,梯田能分别减少46.30%～83.59%的径流总量和25.82%～82.41%的泥沙总量,淤地坝导致坡沟区域坡长缩短能分别减少7.87%～33.42%的径流总量和10.20%～30.57%的泥沙总量。2）不同试验方案下坡沟系统的产沙率和产流率之间满足线性关系,而累计产沙量和累计产流量满足幂函数关系。3）综合措施配置发挥了“1+1> 2”的水土保持...     

水平沟整地措施对黄土丘陵区草原土壤水分动态平衡的影响

三峡水库消落带是库区水域与周边陆地环境的关键过渡地带,周期性反季节干湿交替使其具有强烈的物质交换特征。辨析消落带泥沙及其吸附的颗粒态磷的来源对消落带土壤污染防治和环境效应评估以及三峡水环境保护具有重要意义。以三峡库区汝溪河支流不同高程（145～155、>155～165、>165～175 m）消落带为研究对象,运用复合指纹技术查明,消落带泥沙中颗粒态磷的主要来源是长江干流悬移质和汝溪河上游悬移质。淹水期间长江干流江水顶托引起的泥沙沉积是颗粒态磷的主要来源,在>165～175 m高程带对颗粒态磷的贡献达到最大（54.5%）。雨季初期支流上游悬移质对145～155 m高程消落带的颗粒态磷贡献最大（51.6%）,而随高程的增加贡献率减少。消落带上方的土壤侵蚀产沙主要堆积在>155～165和>165～175 m高程范围内,导致消落带上方土壤对泥沙和颗粒态磷的贡献率都随高程的增加而增加。     

Contamination history of suspended river sediments accumulated in oxbow lakes over the last 25 years

Background, aims, and scope  Embankment of meandering river systems in many industrial areas results in the formation of artificial oxbow lakes that may act as perennial or intermittent traps for river sediments. Their deposits can be dated using a combination of historical and stratigraphic data, providing a good means to study historical records of contamination transported by rivers. Contamination history over the last few decades is of special significance for Central and Eastern Europe as it can reflect high pollutant levels in the second half of the twentieth century and the subsequent improvement after the fall of the Iron Curtain. The purpose of this study was to investigate recent sediments of an oxbow lake of the Morava River, Czech Republic, their stratigraphic records, sediment architecture, and history of contamination. Materials and methods  Seven ground-penetrating radar (GPR) profiles and three sediment cores up to 4 m deep were studied. The stratigraphy of the cores was inferred from visible-light spectrophotometry, X-ray radiography, grain size analysis, and semiquantitative modal analysis of sandy fractions. The sediments were dated using the ¹³⁷Cs mass activity and combinations of stratigraphic and historical data. The cores were sampled for concentrations of heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants. Wet sampled, lyophilized, and sieved sediments were extracted and analyzed for heavy metals by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) of aqua regia leachate and for persistent organic pollutants by gas chromatography (GC-ECD and GC-MS). Results  Three distinct sedimentary sequences (S1, S2, and S3) were identified. The basal sequence S1 represents river channel sediments deposited before the formation of the oxbow lake, most likely before the 1930s. The boundary between the S1 and S2 sequence correlates with the level of sediment dredging from 1981 evidenced from historical data. The overlying sequences S2 and S3 represent a postdredging sediment wedge, which progrades into the lake. ¹³⁷Cs dating revealed a distinct Chernobyl 1986 peak at ∼150 cm depth inferring sedimentation rates up to 7.7 cm/year. Sediment contamination abruptly increased from the pre-1930s deposits to the post-1981 deposits. The concentration levels increased two to five times for Pb, As, Zn, and Cu, about 10 to 15 times for Cr, Sb, and Hg, up to 34 times for Cd, and 25 to 67 times for DDTs, PCBs, and PAHs. The concentrations of most contaminants remained approximately constant until the late 1980s when they started to decrease slowly. The decreasing trends were most prominent for heavy metals and anthracene, less prominent for DDTs, and almost absent for PCBs and most PAHs. Discussion  Different temporal and spatial patterns for various contaminants make it possible to distinguish between anthropogenic point sources from local industry (anthracene, Cr, Cd), possible diffuse sources (most PAHs), and geological background (V, Co, Ni, and Mo). The observed recent trends in heavy metal and persistent organic pollutant contamination are generally consistent with data from other Central European rivers. The roughly balanced contamination levels in sediments from the lake and the adjacent river channel suggest that the oxbow lake deposits reflect immediate levels of the contamination bound to suspended particulate matter passing through the river. Conclusions  The investigated oxbow lake accumulated suspended sediment from Morava River, developing a thick sedimentary body. The sediments offer a good time framework to study historical contamination of the river on a decade time scale. Continuous contamination trends can be traced back to the early 1980s. The results show that stratigraphic analysis of cores has a good potential for identification of uninterrupted historical trends and unconformities, e.g., due to dredging. Recommendations and perspectives  Oxbow lakes may provide an alternative to floodplains and reservoir deposits when studying river contamination history. High sedimentation rates of up to 7.7 cm/year offer a very good stratigraphic resolution, making it possible to study contamination patterns on annual or even seasonal time scales. On the other hand, oxbow lakes may represent long-term contamination stores, which are unlikely to be redistributed by river erosion and, hence, may possess significant environmental risks for the farther future.     

Ecotoxicological evaluation of Harbour sediments using marine organisms from different trophic levels

Background, Aim and Scope  The toxicity of contaminated sediments should be evaluated considering the direct exposure of laboratory organisms to whole sediments and the indirect exposure to elutriates or extracts (Tay et al. 1992, Byrne and Halloran 1999, Nendza 2002). The alga Dunaliella tertiolecta is indicated for the use in toxicity bioassays because it is highly sensitive to several xenobiotics. Harpacticoid copepods have been already used for toxicity testing and Tigriopus fulvus is a promising Mediterranean target-species in ecotoxicology (Todaro et al. 2001, Faraponova et al. 2003, Pane et al. 2005a). In this study, the toxicity of sediments collected in harbour sites of the Northeastern Adriatic Sea was evaluated by growth inhibition test with free living and alginate-immobilized Dunaliella tertiolecta and acute toxicity test with nauplii and adult Tigriopus fulvus with the aim of pointing out the importance to utilize model organisms from different trophic levels in sediment ecotoxicology. Methodology  Elutriates and whole sediments were tested on free living and immobilized (Pane et al. 1998) algal cells, and on laboratory reared copepods. Free-living D. tertiolecta were exposed to diluted elutriates in a static, multi-well plate system. Naalginate immobilized D. tertiolecta were placed in polystyrene inserts fitted with polyester mesh bottoms and exposed to a thin layer (2 mm) of whole sediments in multi-well plates (EPS 1992, Pane and Bertino 1999). Toxicity tests with copepods were carried out on Tigriopus fulvus nauplii (elutriates) and adults (whole sediments and elutriates). Same-aged nauplii useful for toxicity tests were obtained by egg sac detaching and consequent hatching stimulation (Pane et al. 2006). Newborn nauplii (I–II stage) were exposed to elutriates in multi-well plates provided with polystyrene inserts. Adult T. fulvus maintained in polystyrene inserts fitted with polyester mesh bottoms were placed in contact with a thin layer (2 mm) of whole sediment placed on multi-well plate bottoms. All end-points were evaluated after 96 h. Results  In general, the effects increased with the increasing of elutriate concentration up to 50%; the stimulation or inhibition of algal growth was statistically significant in comparison to the control. The inhibiting elutriates induced EC₅₀ variations of algal growth ranging from 66.9% to 74.3%. The mortality of T. fulvus nauplii was always < 25% after treatment with 100% elutriates and < 10% after treatment with 50% dilution; no effect was shown up with 25% dilution; therefore LC₅₀ was not calculable. The effect of elutriates was negligible on adult copepods and LC₅₀ values were never calculable; percent mortality always resulted in < 10% after treatment with whole sediments. Discussion  Both experimental systems gave substantially similar results after exposition to whole sediments and elutriates. During the experiment with algal cells, the immobilization in Na-alginate and the employment of inserts which allowed the contact of organisms with sediments and their easy counting were particularly useful. Likewise, the employment of inserts of adequate mesh size in the tests with copepods allowed the contact of organisms with the sediment and made organism handling and counting easy, as well as the evaluation of mortality. The methodology here described and the utilization of the proposed test-species could have an importance also considering that the current trend in ecotoxicological research is towards finding the most appropriate organism for specific areas of concern by using indigenous species (Mariani et al. 2006) and towards the major significance of chronic and reproductive end-points. Conclusions  Based on the above results, it can be stated that the bioassay with Dunaliella tertiolecta could be a good estimation tool for the ecotoxicological assessment of marine sediments. The immobilization of algae in Na-alginate was seen to be useful to evaluate the toxicity of whole sediments; the employment of polystyrene inserts allowed an improvement of the procedures. T. fulvus nauplii and adults, as other harpacticoids such as Tigriopus japonicus (Yoon et al. 2006), satisfy the basic criteria for the employment of a standard species in marine bioassays. To date only pelagic Acartia tonsa are utilized in the standardized procedure to evaluate the risk assessment of chemicals or wastewaters (ISO 1999). As, on the contrary, the exposure of copepods to solid-phase contaminants it is not yet standardized, the employment of polystyrene inserts improved the procedures for T. fulvus too. So, the rapidity and the possibility to solve practical problems could be the main attractive features of this technique (Pane et al. 2005a) when applied to whole sediments. Recommendations and Perspectives  The methodology here developed being also applicable to long term and reproduction tests should be recommended because it provides relevant information in comparison with other frequently applied, standardized biotests with crustaceans (ISO 1999). The procedure has been shown to be easily applicable to selected marine organisms. ESS-Submission Editor: Prof. Dr. Henner Hollert (henner.hollert@bio5.rwth-aachen.de)