Polymers, fractals, and ceramic materials

Concepts borrowed from polymer science have been applied to tailor the properties of inorganic materials, especially those derived from amorphous precursors. Fractal geometry can be used to characterize macromolecular precursors and to relate their structures to kinetic growth processes. Within the silica system, for example, it is possible to manipulate the conditions of solution polymerization to yield a variety of macromolecules from branched chains to smooth colloidal particles.     

Beef production from cull dairy cows: a review from culling to consumption

Although more than 3 million head of dairy cows enter the food supply chain in the U.S. every year, research on this topic remains limited and scarce. Meat production from dairy cows is a significant component of beef production, accounting for almost 10% of U.S. commercial beef production. Thus, the purpose of this review is to demonstrate the importance of dairy cows as a beef source, and to provide an overview on topics from farm to meat product—culling, marketing, transportation, welfare, body composition and its relationship with lactation particularities, carcass characteristics, meat quality, and traceability. Current scientific evidence has shown that culling a dairy cow at an appropriate time has beneficial effects on cow welfare and, consequently, cow value. During marketing the dairy cow is visually evaluated for health and factors associated with its expected carcass value; thus, marketing a well-conditioned cow will ensure that the animal is fit for transportation and provides high carcass yield. However, limitations such as low body condition score, lameness or mobility problems, and visual defects remain persistent. Even though beef harvest plants accommodate cows in all body composition states, the current carcass grade system does not reflect the mature cow industry needs. Therefore, improvement of the grading system could maximize carcass utilization and increase cow carcass value by recognizing subprimal cuts that could be merchandised as whole muscle cuts. Lastly, implementation of a traceability system would unify information from the farm to harvest assisting the industry in making further advancements.     

Musculoskeletal responses of 2-year-old Thoroughbred horses to early training. 6. Bone parameters in the third metacarpal and third metatarsal bones

AIM: To determine the effect of a known training regimen on the size and mineral content of the third metacarpal (Mc3) and third metatarsal (Mt3) bones of 2-year-old Thoroughbred horses trained on racetracks.

METHODS: Mc3 and Mt3 of seven horses trained on grass and sand tracks were scanned at several sites using conventional quantitative and peripheral computed tomography (CT). Bone dimensions and density in the diaphysis and epiphysis were compared with those from seven untrained horses. Calcein label was injected in two clusters, during Weeks 9 and 12. The extent and rate of diaphyseal modelling was determined by confocal fl uorescent microscopic examination of thin plane parallel sections of the mid-metacarpal region.

RESULTS: Volumetric bone mineral density (BMDv) of the epiphysis was markedly higher and of the diaphysis was slightly higher in trained compared with untrained horses, but greater bone size in the trained horses had the greatest effect on an index of bone strength. Active osteons, defined as Haversian systems containing calcein label, were fewer, of smaller diameter at the time of calcein injection, and had a greater bone apposition rate in trained than in untrained horses.

CONCLUSIONS: Conventional training of 2-year-old Thoroughbred racehorses over a 13-week period had a significant effect on bone size, density and strength index when compared to untrained horses.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Bone responded rapidly to early training. The data provide reference values and sites for use in longitudinal studies of commercial training regimens.     

Long-term decline in the abundance of leafhoppers and planthoppers (Auchenorrhyncha) in Central European protected dry grasslands

Landscapes in Central Europe have changed considerably during the last five decades, while nature reserves have been less affected. However, there is growing concern that species richness and population size of animals in reserves may decrease even under protection.We performed a comparative study of the development in auchenorrhynchan communities of governmentally protected dry grasslands in Eastern Germany and tested whether reserves were effective in maintaining insect communities. The historical surveys are from 1963 to 1967. Between 2008 and 2010 we revisited 26 of the original sites and sampled leafhoppers and planthoppers by applying the same sampling technique as in the 1960s. Thus, we were able to perform a 40-year-comparison for auchenorrhynchan species richness and abundance. Comparisons capturing three successive years of each period allowed us to assess interannual variability in abundance.Species richness hardly differed between the two periods. However, some new species were found, and therefore species composition changed. Species abundance and overall numbers of individuals declined. Mainly species known to be very common dry grassland specialists exhibited strong declines in abundance. On average, only 27% of auchenorrhynchan numbers caught from 1964 to 1966 were recorded for the years 2008 to 2010.The results suggest that weather conditions and climate change are minor factors in the decline in auchenorrhynchan populations in recent years. Although the studied areas were under protection during the last 50 years, air-borne nitrogen deposition, the introduction of modern intense land use practices and alterations in plant communities, are likely to have influenced auchenorrhynchan abundance to a large extent.     

Susceptibility of mulesing wounds to oviposition and strike development by the Australian sheep blowfly Lucilia caprina

The age and/or physical condition of mulesing wounds had a significant effect on both the oviposition response of L. cuprina and the ability of the wound to support a strike. Up to 48 h after mulesing, untreated wounds elicited a strong oviposition response in contrast with chemically treated wounds, although subsequent larval development was negligible. Seven to 9-day-old wounds, however, regardless of the wound treatment, were highly attractive oviposition sites, which subsequently developed into strikes; the D3 formulation of Defiance*S, however, significantly depressed strike development and shows promise as a mules wound treatment. A marked improvement in the wound healing 14 to 16 d after mulesing coincided with a significant decrease in oviposition. Only those sheep whose wound scabs remained broken, exposing pus and raw tissue, attracted oviposition; subsequent development of the eggs into strikes was negligible.     

The landscape genetics of syntopic topminnows (Fundulus notatus and F. olivaceus) in a riverine contact zone

The metapopulation dynamics of a species are influenced by the spatial arrangement of preferred habitats across a landscape. Increasing habitat patchiness can result in greater population subdivision, leading to more pronounced population genetic structure. Therefore, even subtle differences in habitat preferences among species could lead to substantial differences in genetic structure. Members of the Fundulus notatus species complex of topminnows include a headwater specialist and a large river specialist with broadly overlapping geographical distributions. Both species are often found in the same drainage systems, but partially isolated by divergent habitat preferences. The purpose of this research was to determine whether distribution along a stream continuum in a contact zone influences population genetic patterns in two species of topminnow (Fundulus olivaceus and Fundulus notatus). Fish were collected in the summers of 2010–2012, and habitat data were collected in summer 2012, within all major tributaries of the Saline River in southern Illinois. In total, 523 fish were genotyped using seven microsatellite loci to assess genetic variation. Species distributions in F. notatus and F. olivaceus were associated with habitat factors that covaried with cumulative drainage area. Populations of F. olivaceus showed a greater level of genetic structure reflected in a significant pattern of isolation by distance, while populations of F. notatus showed no such pattern. Spatial autocorrelation analysis revealed that at an individual level, both species became increasingly divergent with waterway distance. Overall, clear interspecific differences in habitat preferences were translated into measurable but relatively subtle differences in population genetic structure.     

Influence of environmental factors on infrared eye temperature measurements in cattle

Environmental factors were evaluated to determine potential limitations in using cattle eye temperatures obtained through infrared thermography (IRT) for early disease detection systems or in animal welfare research studies. The effects of the following factors on IRT eye temperatures in cattle and a fabricated surrogate “eye” were evaluated: camera to object distance, wind speed, camera settings (distance, emissivity, and humidity), and solar loading. Wind speed in both live animals and using a surrogate “eye” was found to decrease the IRT temperature. In the presence of ∼7 km/h wind, the mean IRT eye temperature decreased by 0.43 ± 0.13 °C and; at higher wind speeds (∼12 km/h), the temperature decreased by 0.78 ± 0.33 °C. Direct sunlight was found to increase the IRT eye temperature by 0.56 ± 0.36 °C. It was determined that environmental factors impact IRT temperature measurements significantly and therefore must be managed to ensure reproducible and accurate readings.     

Response of maize to three short-term periods of waterlogging at high and low nitrogen levels on undisturbed and repacked soil

Summary Crops grown with flood irrigation on slowly draining clay soils are subject to periods of waterlogging during and after each irrigation. The aim of this experiment was to quantify crop responses to these short-term waterlogging events and to assess the modifying effect of different agronomic practices. Maize was grown in undisturbed (U) and repacked (R) profiles of clay loam soil encased in steel cylinders (0.75 m diameter × 1.4 m deep). Two levels of N (high (HN) 300 kg N ha^–1, and low (LN) 150 kg N ha^–1) were applied as a split dressing. Three periods of flooding (F) of 72, 72 and 48 h were imposed on half the treatments beginning on days 40, 54 and 68 respectively after sowing. The other irrigation regime (C) kept the profile well watered but avoided surface inundation.     

Hexosamines in the organic layer of two beech forest soils: effects of mesofauna exclusion

Summary In December 1988, litter bags (mesh size: 45 and 1000 m) were exposed in the organic layer of unlimed and limed moder soil under beech forest in the Solling area of Germany. Bags were retrieved on three sampling dates (May, September, and November 1989) and amounts (g m^-2) of glucosamine and galactosamine were determined. Horizon-specific differences generally explained by far the largest part of the treatment variance. In the substrate sampled in December 1988 from the unlimed area glucosamine increased by a factor of 11.8 from the L 1 layer to the H layer and galactosamine by a factor of 15.9. With the exception of the F2 layer, the hexosamine amounts found in the limed substrate sampled in December 1988 were higher in all horizons than in the corresponding horizons sampled from the unlimed area. Exclusion of mesofauna from the 45-m litter bags generally reduced the level of amino sugars at both sites. The difference between the two mesh sizes was most pronounced in the lowermost horizons (F2 and H) and quite small in the upper horizons. The exclusion of mesofauna significantly increased the glucosamine: galactosamine ratio in the two L layers of the unlimed soil on all sampling dates. Seasonal fluctuations suggested that the actual amino sugar content of the organic layer was essentially the function of two components, the first reflecting long-term accumulation of microbial metabo-lites, and the second reflecting short term fluctuations in the microbial colonization of various C sources together with spatial and temporal differences in the ability of the microflora to produce and to decompose hexosamines. The results of this study show that the mesofauna in the beech forest soils investigated significantly affected both the amino sugar components measured, and thus stimulated the accumulation of one of the most important N pools in forest soils.