VCG and AFLP analyses identify the same groups in the causal agents of mango malformation in Brazil

The causal agents of mango malformation disease in Brazil are a new Fusarium lineage in the Gibberella fujikuroi species complex and Fusarium sterilihyphosum; however information on the genetic and geographical diversity of these pathogens in Brazil is missing. Vegetative compatibility group (VCG) and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) analyses were used to measure the genetic diversity within these populations. Both techniques identified the same genetic groups. Six VCG and AFLP groups were identified amongst isolates of the new lineage from Brazil. FB-VCG 1/AFLP I was the most widespread group, found in seven of the 13 sites sampled. The second most frequent group was recovered from three sites. The remaining four groups were recovered from single-sites. We think that this lineage represents a genetically and geographically diverse indigenous population that reproduces clonally. In F. sterilihyphosum, group FS-VCG 1/AFLP VII was found at three sites in the southeast region of Brazil. FS-VCG 2/AFLP VIII contained isolates from South Africa but not from Brazil. Fusarium mangiferae isolates from India and South Africa formed one group, while isolates from Egypt and the USA formed a second group. F. sterilihyphosum at present is represented by a small population that might have been introduced only once into a restricted area. The clonal nature of the observed populations suggests that these fungi either occur naturally on indigenous hosts and have jumped to the introduced mango host (introduced in Brazil) or that they originated with mango and went through a severe population bottleneck when they were introduced to Brazil from India or Southeast Asia.     

Suppression of the clubroot pathogen Plasmodiophora brassicae by plant growth promoting formulations in roots of two Brassica species

In this study, the ability of two organic plant growth stimulants, mainly based on algal extracts, amino acids and phosphonate, to reduce clubroot formation in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana and two economically important Brassica species, Brassia rapa (Chinese cabbage) and Brassica napus (oilseed rape) was investigated. A commercial liquid (Frutogard^®) and a granulate (PlasmaSoil^®) formulation were used to find optimum conditions for both control of the pathogen and plant growth. Both formulations were able to significantly reduce gall formation after Plasmodiophora brassicae infection on Chinese cabbage, but PlasmaSoil^® gave better effects, possibly as a result of the continuous supply of the components to the soil. Individual components did not have the same effect. Clubroots on oilseed rape could also be reduced. In contrast, club formation was not reduced in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. This points to interesting differences in the induction of resistance in the different species. Cross‐sections of infected and treated roots stained for different macromolecules (callose, lignin, suberin) indicated differences in anatomy as a result of the two formulations. The results indicate an application for the granulate formulation PlasmaSoil^® in clubroot control.     

Usefulness of near-infrared spectroscopy to determine biological and chemical soil properties: Importance of sample pre-treatment

Near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) is known for its inexpensiveness, rapidity and accuracy and may become a useful tool for the assessment of soil quality. Objectives were (i) to evaluate the ability of NIRS to predict several chemical and biological properties of organically managed arable soils as well as the properties of grain yield from winter cereals for a closed population and (ii) to test whether the use of field-moist and pre-treated (quick-freezing followed by freeze-drying and grinding) samples will generate similar results. One hundred and sixteen soil samples from nine organically managed farms from Germany sampled in 2005 and 2006 were used for this investigation. Spectra of the near-infrared region (including the visible range, 400–2500 nm) from field-moist (<2 mm) or pre-treated soil samples were recorded. A modified partial least-square regression method and cross-validation were used to develop an equation over the whole spectrum (first–third derivation). For the pre-treated soils, good predictions were obtained for pH, contents of organic C, total N, plant-available P (Olsen) and exchangeable K (calcium-acetate-lactate (CAL)), contents of microbial biomass C and N (C_mic and N_mic) and ergosterol, basal respiration, metabolic quotient, the ratio of organic C/total N, the grain yield of winter cereals and grain nitrogen uptake. The RSC (the ratio of standard deviation of laboratory results to standard error of cross-validation) was greater than 2.0, the correlation coefficients (r) of a linear regression (measured against predicted values) were greater than or equal to 0.9 and the regression coefficients (a) ranged from 0.9 to 1.1. Similar good predictions were obtained if field-moist samples were used, with the exception of P (Olsen), K (CAL), metabolic quotient, grain yield of winter cereals and grain nitrogen uptake (satisfactory predictions) and ergosterol content (unsatisfactory prediction). Good predictions of the contents of Mg (CaCl₂) and microbial biomass P (P_mic) were achieved for field-moist but not for pre-treated samples. Despite sample preparation, only satisfactory predictions were obtained for the ratios of C_mic/N_mic and ergosterol/C_mic and grain nitrogen content (1.4RSC2.0, r0.8 and 0.8a1.2). However, unsatisfactory predictions for field-moist and pre-treated samples were achieved for the content of P (CAL), the nitrogen mineralisation rate and the ratios of C_mic/P_mic and basal respiration/nitrogen mineralisation rate. Our results demonstrate that biological soil properties can be predicted with NIRS for closed populations in both sample states. The pre-treatment should be used if samples have to be stored prior to infrared measurements for periods longer than a month.     

Pyrite oxidation in sediment samples from the German open‐cut brown coal mine Zwenkau: mineral formation and dissolution of silicates

Changes in mineral composition occurring in pyrite‐containing sediments under aerobic conditions are complex and not fully understood. The objective was to study the mineral formation and dissolution of silicates using ion activity product (IAP) calculations and x‐ray diffraction (XRD) on samples of different degrees of pyrite oxidation. Three sediment samples were obtained from the open‐cut brown coal mine of Zwenkau (Saxony, Germany) with low (ZL: 28 g kg^—1), medium (ZM: 67 g kg^—1) and high (ZH: 95 g kg^—1) pyrite contents. These samples were oxidized in the laboratory for 3, 20, 67, and 130 days to obtain four different degrees of pyrite oxidation for each sediment. Sequential batch experiments were carried out for each sediment and oxidation status. Additionally, cation exchange capacities were determined. XRD showed the formation of gypsum (all sediments), jarosite (ZM, ZH), and rozenite (ZH) with increasing pyrite oxidation. IAP calculations suggested an occurrence of gypsum in all samples, of schwertmannite in slightly (ZH) and moderately oxidized (ZM, ZL) samples, and of alunite in a moderately oxidized sample (ZL). The contents of feldspar (ZL), mica/illite (ZL, ZH), and kaolinite (ZH) decreased with increasing pyrite oxidation. The cation exchange capacities of the sediments decreased by 20 (ZH) to 70 mmol_c kg^—1 (ZM). The change in mineral phases with increasing oxidation status of the sediments also changed the activities of Al, Fe, and SO₄ in solution phases. The results obtained in this study suggested the usefulness of predictive models to estimate sediment and water acidification due to pyrite oxidation.     

Effect of wood ash on soil chemistry of a pine stand in Northern Germany

Addition of wood ash to acid soils will affect the soil chemistry of forests in a number of ways which were assessed for a pine stand in northern Germany. A field experiment was carried out in a fifty‐year old pine stand on a sandy Podzol at Fuhrberg (Lüneburger Heide, Lower Saxony/Germany) which involved depositing wood ash (2.4 t ha^—1) on the surface. Soil solution chemistry was investigated monthly at different depths for 24 months. Prior to and 19 months after the ash addition, exchangeable cations and amounts of heavy metals were determined at different depths. Two to four months after addition of wood ash, maximum mean concentrations in the soil solution of Ca were 240 μmol l^—1 at 0 cm (surface of mineral soil) and 100 μmol l^—1 at 100 cm and of K 980 μmol l^—1 and 140 μmol l^—1, respectively. The pH values in soil solutions dropped temporarily by 0.3 units at 0 and 10 cm depth. Nitrate concentrations increased at all depths and maximum mean concentration was 230 μmol l^—1 at 100 cm. Concentrations of Pb and Cr in soil solution did not change significantly (p < 0.05) after ash addition. Concentrations of Cd and Zn increased significantly at some depths but stayed well below the legal limit for drinking water and below the limits given by the German recommendation for soil conservation. Nineteen months after ash addition, the cation exchange capacity (corrected for the release of cations from the ash) of the upper 6 cm of the organic layer was almost doubled and amounts of exchangeable Ca and Mg increased significantly in the upper 8 cm of the organic layer. Amounts of Zn were increased in the entire organic layer, but changes were significant only in the upper 4 cm. The results of this study suggest that ash from untreated wood (using modest additions) may be recommended for amelioration of forest soils.     

Exchangeable cations in rock fractions and fine earth in soil profiles of different genesis

Data on accumulated exchangeable H, Al, Fe and Mn (M_a) cations in rock fractions in German soil profiles are scarce. The objective of this study was to describe the sum of accumulated M_a cations of fine earth and rock fragments in 11 deep soil profiles of varying genesis. Soil profiles were laid out at the sites Solling, Eifel, Harz mountains and the Erzgebirge and the parent materials included sandstones, siltstones, quartzite, slate, greywacke, diabase, gneiss and quartz porphyry. Exchangeable cations in the fine earth and rock fragments were measured in depths down to 6 m. Additionally, effective porosity and specific surface of rock fragments were determined. The effective porosity of the different rock fragments ranged from 4 to 28% (v/v), indicating that the rocks were accessible to solutions. For most samples, the cation exchange capacities (CEC) of the fine earth fractions were larger than those of the rock fragments, and the CEC (fine earth)/CEC (rock) ratios decreased with depth. All 11 profiles had small (<40%) amounts of exchangeable Na, K, Mg and Ca (M_b) cations in the fine earth fraction. Exchangeable M_a and M_b cations in the rock fragments changed similarly with depth as in the fine earth fractions for all profiles. Cumulative (rock + fine earth) M_a cations from 0—200 cm ranged from 474 to 1592 kmol_c ha⁻¹. The contribution of the rock fraction to the cumulative exchangeable M_a cations accounted for 13 to 85% of the total. The sum of exchangeable M_a cations was much higher than the cumulative acid deposition in western Germany since the beginning of industrialization, suggesting that carbonic acid and organic acids contributed largely to soil acidification. The rocks contribute significantly to buffering the acidity of the seepage water by silicate weathering and cation exchange. Therefore, acidification models which consider the fine earth fraction only, may lead to an overestimation of the rate of soil and groundwater acidification.     

Simian agent 8--a herpes simplex-like monkey virus

This review summarizes the most recent information on Simian Agent 8, a herpes simplex-like monkey virus. The agent has a broad host range and--besides the classical morphogenesis (budding at the internal nuclear membrane)--the virus gets enveloped at all cytoplasmic membranes including the plasma membrane; strikingly it carries a rather prominent tegument. Regarding its sequence arrangement SA8 can be grouped to the E-type genomes. It has a G + C-content of 69% and a total DNA-homology with HSV-1 of 31%. The glycoproteins gC and gE are largely type-specific; whereas gB and gD as well as ICP35, ICP8 and the major capsid protein represent well conserved proteins of the simplexviruses. The type-common epitopes of gB and gD induce cross-reacting antibodies, which are even involved in cross-neutralization.     

Transmission of equine cyathostomes (Strongylidae) in central Texas

After foaling, 6 mares and their foals were placed on equine parasite-free pastures. Observations of fecal nematode eggs and pasture larvae indicated peak cyathostome egg production occurred in late August and early September, with greatest numbers of larvae on the forage appearing during October. Two foals were necropsied for parasitologic evaluations at approximately 155 days of age. Both had approximately 100,000 adult cyathostomes, mostly Cylicostephanus longibursatus, Cylicocyclus nassatus and Cyathostomum catinatum. However, there were nearly 7 times more cyathostome larvae (189,004) in the foal necropsied in October, during the autumn rise in pasture larval populations, than in the foal examined in September (27,354).