Consensus statement on ehrlichial disease of small animals from the infectious disease study group of the ACVIM. American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine

Within the past several decades, the number of Ehrlichia spp. recognized to infect cats, dogs, and human beings has expanded substantially. The recent application of advanced techniques in molecular biology has changed how ehrlichiosis is diagnosed and has provided new tools for the assessment of treatment. As these techniques are applied, the numerous questions that relate to the management of dogs and cats with ehrlichiosis ultimately will be answered. We hope this consensus statement will assist veterinarians in the management of their patients.     

Induced systemic protection against tomato late blight elicited by plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria

ABSTRACT Two strains of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), Bacillus pumilus SE34 and Pseudomonas fluorescens 89B61, elicited systemic protection against late blight on tomato and reduced disease severity by a level equivalent to systemic acquired resistance induced by Phytophthora infestans or induced local resistance by chemical inducer beta-amino butyric acid (BABA) in greenhouse assays. Germination of sporangia and zoospores of P. infestans on leaf surfaces of tomato plants treated with the two PGPR strains, pathogen, and chemical BABA was significantly reduced compared with the noninduced control. Induced protection elicited by PGPR, pathogen, and BABA were examined to determine the signal transduction pathways in three tomato lines: salicylic acid (SA)-hydroxylase transgenic tomato (nahG), ethylene insensitive mutants (Nr/Nr), and jasmonic acid insensitive mutants (def1). Results suggest that induced protection elicited by both bacilli and pseudomonad PGPR strains was SA-independent but ethylene- and jasmonic acid-dependent, whereas systemic acquired resistance elicited by the pathogen and induced local resistance by BABA were SA-dependent. The lack of colonization of tomato leaves by strain 89B61 suggests that the observed induced systemic resistance (ISR) was due to systemic protection by strain 89B61 and not attributable to a direct interaction between pathogen and biological control agent. Although strain SE34 was detected on tomato leaves, ISR mainly accounted for the systemic protection with this strain.     

Some safety aspects of salmonella vaccines for poultry: distribution and persistence of three Salmonella typhimurium live vaccines

The purpose of this study was to analyze the safety characteristics of three commercially available live Salmonella vaccine strains (vacT, Zoosaloral, and X3985) in relation to their persistence in individual animals but also within a flock and in the environment. In a first experiment, the digestive and systemic distributions in chickens were followed for 10 days in individually reared chickens that were orally inoculated at 1 day of age. Strain X3985 quickly disappeared from the digestive tract but remained in the liver until the end of this experiment, whereas strains vacT and Zoosaloral colonized the liver as well as the gut for 10 days. In the second trial, behavior of the vaccine strains was studied in groups of 20 chickens during 10 wk after a single oral administration to individual birds. Strain vacT remained in the environment of inoculated animals for 4-5 wk. Six weeks after the inoculation, vacT was not recovered from internal organs such as liver and spleen, and vacT disappeared from the digestive tract between the sixth and the 10th weeks. Comparatively, both Zoosaloral and X3985 vaccine strains persisted longer in the environment (8 wk at least). Of the vaccine strains, X3985 showed the greatest colonization of both systemic and digestive organs.     

Issues associated with the application to veterinarians of a mailed questionnaire regarding lower respiratory-tract disease in racehorses

This study evaluated a questionnaire investigating the attitudes and behaviours of veterinarians regarding the cause, diagnosis and treatment of lower respiratory-tract disease in racehorses. The questionnaire was sent to all non-student members (648) of the Australian Equine Veterinary Association: two mailings and a single telephone contact (each separated by four weeks). Subsequent phases were only administered to those who had not responded to earlier phases. In total, 467 (72.1%) of the 648 mailed questionnaires were returned. Of these, 354 were usable. The remaining 113 respondents gave various reasons for not completing the questionnaire; the most common (68%) was that horses were not a component of their practice. Those respondents working primarily with horses required fewer phases to return the questionnaire. Although deviating from previously described questionnaire designs, the described protocol provided a reasonable response rate.     

Transportation of cattle.

Until recent years, relatively little attention has been given to beef cattle transportation management and research in the United States As oulined in this article, it is clear that there are significant physiologic changes occurring in cattle as a result of transport and handling. These physiologic changes encompass, among others, effects on immune system function, disease incidence, and carcass quality. Significant advancements have been made during the past decade in the use of appropriate cattle-handling techniques, facility design,and research promoting our understanding and the attenuation of transport stress. Many issues surrounding livestock transport, such as temperature and ventilation during transit, use of rest stops, pretransit feeding regimens, and incidence of disease transmission via transport vehicles, need further research to enable continued provision of science-based recommendations to the livestock and transportation industries.     

Hepatic lipidosis in a black-headed python (Aspidites melanocephalus).

The number of people keeping reptiles in captivity has markedly increased, and widespread inappropriate husbandry will result in an increasing incidence of the diagnosis of hepatic lipidosis(HL). It may become apparent that some species of snake have predisposition to develop HL. In the specific instance of the genus Aspidites, alterations to the usual husbandry that limit feeding and thereby body weight should markedly lessen the chance of the animal's developing HL. It is important for clinicians to develop a more aggressive approach to these cases and to build a bank of data with which to promote understanding of this common malady.     

Pharmacokinetics of ketoprofen in the green iguana (Iguana iguana) following single intravenous and intramuscular injections.

The nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug ketoprofen (KTP) is a commonly used antiinflammatory and analgesic agent in reptile medicine, but no studies documenting its pharmacokinetics in this species have been published. Ketoprofen was administered as a racemic mixture to green iguanas (Iguana iguana) intravenously (i.v.) and intramuscularly (i.m.) at 2 mg/kg. Pharmacokinetic analyses were performed and indicated that ketoprofen in iguanas administered by the intravenous route has a classical two-compartmental distribution pattern, a slow clearance (67 ml/ kg/hr) and a long terminal half-life (31 hr) compared to ketoprofen studies reported in mammals. When delivered by the intramuscular route, bioavailability was 78%. These data indicate the daily dosing that is generally recommended for reptile patients, as an extrapolation from mammalian data, may be more frequent than necessary.     

Echocardiographic evaluation of the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus).

Safe and effective echocardiography would represent a valuable tool for marine mammal veterinarians and physiologists evaluating the dolphin heart. Unfortunately, conventional ultrasound technology (transthoracic echocardiography) has been limited by logistic, anatomic, and behavioral challenges. Five mature male Atlantic bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) were trained for echocardiographic imaging (four for both transthoracic and transesophageal imaging, and one for only transthoracic imaging). It was noted that transesophageal image quality transiently improved when the dolphins spontaneously exhaled. Subsequently, dolphins were conditioned to hold their breath following forced exhalation, and imaging proceeded during such behavioral breath holds. Over 25 transthoracic and 100 transesophageal echocardiographic studies were performed, including both two-dimensional imaging and color flow mapping. Transthoracic imaging yielded poor-quality images of only small portions of the heart. In contrast, transesophageal imaging, which improved dramatically with behavioral breath holding following exhalation, yielded consistently high-quality images of the entire heart (mitral, tricuspid, aortic, and pulmonary valves, atrial and ventricular septa, left and right atria, left and right ventricles, and ascending aorta and main pulmonary artery). Color flow mapping demonstrated mild tricuspid regurgitation in all dolphins, and mild aortic regurgitation in one dolphin found to have a pedunculated mass arising from the sinutubular junction just above the aortic valve. There were no complications in nonsedated dolphins. The heart of the bottlenose dolphin can be safely, effectively, and reproducibly evaluated with the use of transesophageal echocardiography in conjunction with behavioral breath holding following forced exhalation. This approach, and the normative echocardiographic data generated from this work, lays the foundation for future echocardiographic studies of cetaceans.     

Single-dose intravenous and oral pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin in goral (Nemorrhaedus goral arnouxianus).

This study describes the pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin following oral and i.v. administration to goral (Nemorrhaedus goral arnouxianus). The objective of this study was to expand upon current antimicrobial treatment options available for use in goral by measuring plasma concentrations and examining the pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin in these animals. Two single-dose treatments of enrofloxacin were administered to four goral in a crossover design. Single-dose treatments consisted of administration of injectable enrofloxacin i.v. (5 mg/kg) and enrofloxacin tablets (136 mg chewable tablets) dissolved in a grain slurry and administered p.o. (10 mg/kg). Plasma levels of enrofloxacin and its metabolite ciprofloxacin were measured with the use of high-performance liquid chromatography with UV detection. Plasma volume of distribution for i.v. enrofloxacin was 2.15 - 1.01 L/kg, with a mean elimination half-life of 13.3 hr and total body clearance of 0.19+/-0.14 L/kg/hr. The maximum plasma concentration measured for oral enrofloxacin was 2.77 microg/ml, with a mean half-life of 5.2 hr and systemic availability of 14.6%. The area under the plasma concentration over time curve (AUC) for oral enrofloxacin was 21.06 microg/hr/ml. The area under the plasma concentration over time curve generated for oral enrofloxacin in goral yields an area under the plasma concentration over time curve to minimum inhibitory concentration ratio > 100 for many gram-positive and gram-negative bacterial pathogens common to small ruminants. Based on these results, oral enrofloxacin may be considered for further study as a treatment option for susceptible infections in goral.     

Diagnosis and treatment of presumptive postobstructive pulmonary edema in a Florida panther (Puma concolor coryi).

A free-ranging, adult male Florida panther (Puma concolor coryi) was immobilized and evaluated for hematuria following routine capture. Prior to anesthetic recovery, the panther was fitted with a telemetry collar. After an initially quiet recovery, the panther began thrashing in the transport cage, and was again immobilized. Pink foam was evident from the nostrils, and crackles were ausculted over the chest, indicating pulmonary edema. Postobstructive pulmonary edema was diagnosed based on history, clinical signs, radiographic evaluation, and blood gas analysis. The animal was treated intensively for several hours with diuretics, oxygen, and manual ventilation. The panther responded rapidly to therapy and was released back into the wild 48 hr after presentation. Postobstructive pulmonary edema, also called negative-pressure pulmonary edema, may be underrecognized in veterinary medicine. In this case, the telemetry collar, in conjunction with anesthetic recovery in a small transport crate, may have contributed to tracheal obstruction. Wildlife veterinarians and biologists should be aware of the risk of airway obstruction when placing tracking collars, and animals should be continuously monitored during anesthetic recovery to ensure the presence of a patent airway.