International and regional standards for diagnosis of regulated pests*

For the last 8 years, EPPO has run a European Panel on diagnostics, which has developed regional standards on diagnostic protocols. Nearly 60 such standards have now been approved, and are in active use in EPPO countries. In 2004, the Interim Commission for Phytosanitary Measures (ICPM) of FAO, in reviewing global needs for International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPMs), recognized that there is a strong interest in developing diagnostic protocols for all IPPC contracting parties. Such protocols would support the harmonization of detection and identification procedures worldwide, contribute to greater transparency and comparability in the diagnostics of regulated pests, and assist in the resolution of disputes between trading partners. In addition, such protocols would constitute a very good material for technical assistance. In 2004, the ICPM adopted a mechanism for more rapid development of ISPMs in specific areas, suitable particularly for diagnostic protocols. A Technical Panel to develop protocols for specific pests was also established and met for the first time in September 2004. A format for international diagnostic protocols was prepared, together with a list of priority pests.     

Rapid and non-invasive measurements of fat and pigment concentrations in live and slaughtered Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.)

The aim of this study was to non-invasively determine fat and pigment concentrations in salmon muscle based on visible and near infrared (VIS/NIR) spectroscopy measurements of live/whole fish and fillets, and by means of digital photography (DP) of fillets. The fish used were two populations of farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) consisting of 46 salmon averaging 0.7 kg (range 0.17–1.7 kg, Group S) and 30 salmon averaging 2.3 kg (range 1.4–4.1 kg, Group L). Chemical analyses (fat and pigment content) and computerized tomography, CT (fat content) were used as reference methods. Group L was analysed in the live state (VIS/NIR), after gutting (VIS/NIR and CT), and as fillets (VIS/NIR and DP). Group S was analysed in the gutted state (VIS/NIR) and as fillets (VIS/NIR and DP). VIS spectroscopy predictions of pigment in whole salmon from Group S were obtained with a root mean square error of prediction (RMSEP) of 0.9 mg kg^− 1 astaxanthin, and a correlation between VIS spectroscopy predicted and chemically measured pigment of r = 0.85 (p < 0.0001). The fat concentration was determined by the NIR spectroscopy in live fish with RMSEP = 1.0 fat% unit, and a correlation with chemical reference values of r = 0.94 (p < 0.0001). Fat predictions from NIR spectroscopy correlated also well with predictions from CT analyses, r = 0.95 (p < 0.0001). VIS spectroscopy and DP were equally well suited to determine pigment concentrations in salmon fillets, with prediction errors of only 0.4 mg kg^− 1 astaxanthin, and a correlation with chemically determined pigment of r = 0.92 (p < 0.0001). The results obtained in the present study are the first to demonstrate successful non-invasive pigment predictions in whole salmon using VIS/NIR spectroscopy, and the possibility for simultaneous, rapid and non-destructive quantification of fat and pigment concentrations.     

Improvements to the economic impact assessment section of the EPPO PRA scheme*

In this paper the adjustments to the economic impact assessment section of the EPPO Decision‐support scheme for pest risk analysis undertaken by the PRATIQUE EU project are described. The improvements aim to improve accuracy, consistency and transparency and include the following aspects. The wording of the questions and notes has been adjusted to enhance clarity and provide additional assistance, especially for assessing indirect impacts. Furthermore a new question has been added about the impact of the pest when all current crop protection measures are applied, and some questions have been merged. Indicators, used to measure impacts, have been added to the notes. Guidance has also been given to assist the risk assessor when selecting one of five risk ratings in order to help ensure consistency between risk assessors. Finally, a matrix model has been developed, primarily to assist with summarizing results. Wherever possible, examples have been provided.     

Consistency in pest risk analysis – how can it be achieved and what are the benefits?*

This paper describes the efforts in the PRATIQUE EU project to increase consistency that were integrated into the revised EPPO Decision‐support scheme (DSS) for Pest Risk Analysis (PRA). The establishment section is used here to illustrate the changes and improvements of the DSS, as it has undergone the most comprehensive changes with reformulation and restructuring of many questions and detailed rating guidance. When revising the establishment section of the EPPO DSS for PRA, there were three principal objectives that influenced the revision: (i) to focus the assessment on the most relevant factors influencing establishment; (ii) to identify the area where establishment is possible before assessing the suitability of that area, and (iii) to enhance the consistency of the establishment section by providing rating guidance with sub‐questions and examples. To simplify the process, some questions were rephrased as closed questions (answer is either yes or no). Clearer notes were provided to explain what information is needed to answer the questions. Furthermore, consistency has been enhanced by developing tools to help assessors when deciding on an appropriate overall risk rating and uncertainty score by providing a visual summary of the risk ratings and uncertainty scores (‘Visualizer’) and a method for integrating all the responses to the questions to provide a summary score for each major section and an overall assessment of risk (‘Rule based matrix model’).     

Movements and spatiotemporal distribution of escaped farmed and local wild Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua L.)

Commercial farming of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua L.) is now being developed in several countries. The ecological consequences of cod culture are poorly understood, but recent research suggests that Atlantic cod are more prone to escape from net pens than Atlantic salmon. Here, we describe the movements and the spatiotemporal distribution of farmed cod after escape relative to wild cod, both during and outside the natural spawning season. The experimental design included simulating escape incidents of farmed cod tagged with acoustic transmitters and using an array of automatic listening stations to monitor their dispersal and distribution. For comparison, local wild cod were monitored using the same array of receivers. The farmed cod dispersed rapidly after a simulated escape, they randomly distributed over large areas and their distribution overlapped with local wild cod. Moreover, escaped farmed fish were found at local cod spawning areas during the spawning season. The study also indicated that the recapture rate of escaped farmed cod was high compared with that of escaped farmed salmon. Thus, while our results showed that there is a considerable potential for ecosystem effects caused by escaped farmed cod, mitigating actions such as an efficient recapture fishery for escapees may be possible.     

Redescription of some Spauligodon spp. and Parapharyngodon spp., and of skrjabinodon mabuyae (Sandground, 1936) inglis, 1968 (Pharyngodonidae: Oxyuroidea) from insectivorous South African lizards

As part of a study on the helminth parasites of South African lizards several species of saurians were collected from localities in the North West Province, the Northern Province, Mpumalanga Province and Gauteng Province. Spauligodon blydeensis (Hering-Hagenbeck, 2001) from the Cape thick-toed gecko, Pachydactylus capensis, Spauligodon molpoensis (Hering-Hagenbeck, 2001) from Wahlberg's velvet gecko, Homopholis wahibergii, Parapharyngodon margaritiferi, Hering-Hagenbeck, 2001 from the skink, Mabuya margaritifer, Parapharyngodon gerrhosauri, Hering-Hagenbeck, 2001 from the plated lizard, Gerrhosaurus flavigularis and Skrjabinodon mabuyae (Sandground, 1936) Inglis, 1968 from the skinks Mabuya punctatissima, Mabuya spilogaster and Mabuya varia are redescribed. The different Spauligodon spp. in the subcontnent may be separated on the presence or absence of spicules in the males, the presence or absence of spines on the tail of both the males and females, as well as on the size and shape of the eggs, and the configuration of the polar caps. The Parapharyngodon spp. are distinguished mainly by the morphological characters of the males, such as the width of the caudal alae and the size of the pre- and adanal papillae. Female Parapharyngodon spp. closely resemble each other and some could not be identified to the species level since males were absent. Spinose larvae, together with adult Parapharyngodon spp. were recovered from Mabuya margaritifer. All Parapharyngodon spp. larvae described to date are spinose and since the larvae in this study were collected together with adult Parapharyngodon spp., we consider them to belong to the same genus. Skrjabinodon mabuyae differs from the closely related Skrjabinodon mabuiensis in the presence of a spicule in the male and lateral alae in the female. The former nematode is described for the first time from skinks in South Africa.     

Natural forage composition decreases deer browsing on Picea abies around supplemental feeding sites

In southern Sweden, maintaining high cervid densities through supplemental feeding has become a common management practice. We aim at investigating deer browsing pressure on young Norway spruce in relation to distance from supplemental feeding sites. Because available forage is considered important in understanding browsing patterns, we modeled several factors affecting food availability, and their interaction effect with distance. We confirmed earlier studies about a locally high browsing pressure on natural vegetation adjacent to supplemental feeding sites where browsing pressure declined with distance and alternative forage abundance. Novel is that browsing on spruce occurred in 27.6% of the investigated plots. The browsing pressure of those plots averaged 9%. Distance was the most important factor in relation to browsing. The interactive effect of occurring field layer (FL), and deciduous trees was also highlighted as these significantly affected the relationship between browsing pressure on spruce and distance. In the studied conditions, browsing pressure ceased at ca. 205 m, whereas in scenarios of an abundant FL, browsing levels were negligible already at 0 m from supplemental feeding sites. We suspect that most of the browsing was caused by fallow deer in our study area.     

A longitudinal study of the risks for introduction of severe footrot into sheep flocks in the south west of Norway

In 2008, ovine footrot was detected in Norway for the first time since 1948. By December 2012 it had spread to 99 flocks, all in the county of Rogaland in the south west of Norway, and 42% of which were located in the municipality of Rennesøy in Rogaland. The aim of this study was to investigate risk factors for contracting severe footrot in flocks of sheep. A flock was considered positive for severe footrot based on positive virulence test or by clinical signs in addition to a positive PCR test.