Impact of added sand on the recovery of Salmonella,Campylobacter, Escherichia coli,and coliforms from prechill and postchill commercial broiler carcass halves

Salmonella and Campylobacter are often associated with raw poultry products and continue to be leading causes of food-borne gastroenteritis in the United States. As a result, the presence of these organisms on broiler carcasses is monitored on a routine basis. Abrasive rinsing methods (e.g., adding glass beads) have been shown to increase the level of bacteria recovered from carcasses or carcass parts. The objective of this study was to evaluate the addition of sand to the rinse on bacterial enumeration and the prevalence of Salmonella and Campylobacter recovered from broiler carcasses. During each of 4 replications, 6 prechill and 6 postchill broiler carcasses were collected from a commercial processing plant. All carcasses were split along the dorso-ventral midline. Carcass halves were rinsed in buffered peptone water, whereas the companion half was rinsed in buffered peptone water with sterile sand added. All carcass halves were rinsed for 1 min and the rinsate was collected. Salmonella, coliforms, and Escherichia coli were enumerated and the prevalence of Salmonella and Campylobacter was determined. Salmonella and Campylobacter were isolated from 17 and 50% of the carcass halves, respectively. There was no significant (P > 0.05) difference in Salmonella or Campylobacter prevalence from carcass halves rinsed with or without sand. The addition of sand to the rinse had no effect on the number of Salmonella, coliforms, or E. coli recovered from prechill or postchill carcass halves. These results show that adding sand to the rinse liquid did not improve the recovery of bacteria present on the carcass in either moderate (2.6 log₁₀ cfu/mL rinsate) or low numbers (<3 cfu/mL of rinsate).     

Wild Bonelli’s eagles (Aquila fasciata) as carrier of antimicrobial resistant Salmonella and Campylobacter in Eastern Spain

Wild birds have repeatedly been found to be involved in the dissemination of enteric bacterial pathogens in the environment. The aim of this study was to determine the occurrence of Salmonella and Campylobacter as well as the antimicrobial resistance in wild Bonelli’s eagles nestlings in Eastern Spain. In addition, we compared the efficiency of two sampling methods (fresh faecal samples from nest and cloacal swabs from nestlings) for detection of both bacteria. A total of 28 nests with 45 nestlings were analysed. In the nest, Salmonella occurrence was 61 ± 9.2%, while Campylobacter occurrence was 11 ± 5.8% (p < 0.05). In the nestlings, Salmonella occurrence was 36 ± 7.1%, while Campylobacter occurrence was 11 ± 4.7% (p < 0.05). Eight Salmonella serovars were identified, and the most frequently isolated were S. Enteritidis, S. Typhimurium, S. Houston, and S. Cerro. Only one Campylobacter species was identified (C. jejuni). Regarding antimicrobial resistance, the Salmonella strains isolated were found to be most frequently resistant to ampicillin and to tigecycline; however, the sole Campylobacter strain recovered was multidrug resistant. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that wild Bonelli’s eagles nestlings are greater carriers of Salmonella than of Campylobacter. Both Salmonella and Campylobacter isolates exhibited antimicrobial resistance. In addition, faecal samples from nests were most reliable for Salmonella detection, while cloacal swab from nestlings were most reliable for Campylobacter detection.     

Natural Occurrence of Campylobacter Species,Salmonella Serovars,and Other Bacteria in Unabsorbed Yolks of Market-Age Commercial Broilers

In the developing avian embryo, the main energy source is the yolk. Toward the end of the incubation period, the remaining yolk sac is internalized into the abdominal cavity. At hatch, the remaining yolk comprises 20% of the chick's BW and provides the nutrients needed for maintenance. Posthatch, chicks rapidly initiate the transition from yolk dependence to the utilization of exogenous feed. However, at present, it is not known what types of bacteria are found to be associated with unabsorbed yolk sacs from market-age broilers. For Experiment 1, one hundred 6-wk-old defeathered broiler carcasses were obtained from a commercial processing facility during each of 3 visits. In the second experiment, one hundred 8-wk-old defeathered broiler carcasses were obtained from a different commercial processing plant on 4 separate occasions. For both experiments, each carcass was aseptically opened and inspected for the presence of an unabsorbed yolk sac. Three to 5 carcasses containing a free-floating yolk sac (within the abdominal cavity) and the yolk stalk (without a yolk sac) and 3 to 5 carcasses containing an attached yolk and yolk stalk from each repetition were randomly selected and analyzed for levels and types of total aerobic bacteria (APC), Enterobacteriaceae (ENT), and for the presence of Campylobacter spp. and Salmonella serovars. The APC ranged from log 3.3 to >log 6.0, and the ENT ranged from log 2.8 to >log 6.0. Staphylococcus spp. and Streptococcus spp. were the predominant organisms in APC, whereas Escherichia coli and Hafnia alvei were found to comprise the ENT. Campylobacter spp. was found in 29% of the yolk stalks, 32% of the attached yolk sacs, and 13% of the free-floating yolk sacs. All Campylobacter isolates were determined to be Campylobacter jejuni, except for 1 attached yolk and yolk stalk, which was Campylobacter coli. Salmonella serovars were found in 26% of the yolk stalks, 48% of the attached yolk sacs, and 23% of the free-floating yolk sacs, and the majority of Salmonella isolates were Salmonella Typhimurium. The significance of these bacterial reservoirs and carcass contamination during processing is yet to be determined.     

Serotype identification and antimicrobial resistance profiles of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Salmonella</Emphasis> spp. isolated from chicken carcasses

In this study, 32 Salmonella strains isolated from 400 chicken carcasses were serotyped, and antibiotic resistance profiles were detected against 12 selected antimicrobial agents using disc diffusion method. Thirty-two isolates were identified as follows; 22 (68.7%) Salmonella Enteritidis, five (15.6%) Salmonella Virchow, three (9.3%) Salmonella Typhimurium and two (6.2%) Salmonella Hadar. In all Salmonella isolates, antibiotic resistance were detected. Out of 32 Salmonella strains, 22 (68.75%) displayed multi-drug resistance. Thirty-two (100.0%) of the isolates were found to be resistant to penicillin G, 20 (62.5%) to nalidixic acid, four (12.5%) to cephalothin, two (6.2%) to streptomycin and two (6.2%) to tetracycline. Fifteen (68.1%) Salmonella Enteritidis, one (33.3%) Salmonella Typhimurium, two (100.0%) Salmonella Hadar and two (40.0%) Salmonella Virchow were shown to be resistant to nalidixic acid. Cephalothin resistance was detected in 9.0%, 33.3%, and 20.0% for Salmonella Enteritidis, Salmonella Typhimurium and Salmonella Virchow, respectively. The results indicate that Salmonella recovered from chicken carcasses were resistant to multiple antimicrobials and that resistance among these isolates varies by serotype. Also, this emerged as a significant public health problem.     

Occurrence of foodborne bacteria in Alberta feedlots

The occurrence of generic Escherichia coli, E. coli O157, Salmonella, and Campylobacter in cattle manure, beef carcasses, catch basin water, and soils receiving manure application was determined in 21 Alberta feedlots. In cattle manure, generic E. coli (98%, 2069/2100) and Campylobacter (76%, 1590/2100) were frequently detected; E. coli O157 (7%, 143/2100) and Salmonella (1%, 20/2100) were less frequently detected. Samples from beef carcasses in the cooler following Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point interventions yielded only 1 isolate each of generic E. coli and Campylobacter (1/1653) and no Salmonella (0/1653). Catch basin water specimens were positive for generic E. coli in both the spring (62%, 13/21) and the fall (52%, 11/21). Other bacteria were detected only in the spring water specimens, including E. coli O157 (29%, 6/21), Salmonella (5%, 1/21), and Campylobacter (52%, 11/21). Generic E. coli was frequently isolated from soil specimens (30%, 27/88), but E. coli O157 was not found in soil samples obtained in the spring and was only occasionally detected in the fall samples (9%, 3/32). Salmonella were occasionally found in the soil specimens collected in the spring (3%, 2/56), but not in the fall season (0/32). Campylobacter jejuni was frequent in cattle manure (66%, 1070/1623), but rare in carcass and environmental samples. E. coli O157 and Salmonella were rarely detected in cattle or the environment. Generic E. coli and Salmonella were rarely detected on carcasses.     

Prevalence and antibiotic susceptibility of thermophilic Campylobacter isolates from free range domestic duck (Cairina moschata) in Morogoro municipality, Tanzania

Prevalence and antibiotic susceptibility of thermophilic Campylobacter isolated from free-ranging ducks was determined in Morogoro Municipality, Tanzania. Ninety intestinal contents from ducks were screened for thermophilic Campylobacter using Skirrow’s protocol. Of the Campylobacter jejuni isolates, 50 were tested for sensitivity to 12 antibiotics. Overall prevalence of thermophilic Campylobacter was 80%. The prevalence of Campylobacter in adult ducks (91.3%) was significantly (p?<?0.05) higher than ducklings (68.2%). The isolation rate of C. jejuni (81.9%) was significantly (P?<?0.001) higher than C. coli (18.1%). All C. jejuni isolates were susceptible to streptomycin, nitrofurantoin and amikacin. Forty eight percent, 74% and 82% of isolates were resistant to cefuroxime sodium, tetracycline and ampicillin respectively. Between 20–50% of isolates were resistant to erythromycin, gentamicin, cloxacillin and amoxicillin. Norfloxacin and ciprofloxacin had lower C. jejuni resistance of 10% and 16% respectively. C. jejuni isolates from adult ducks showed significantly higher rates of resistance (p?<?0.05) to most antibiotics than did duckling isolates. High prevalence of thermophilic Campylobacter in ducks could be of public health significance in Morogoro municipality. The observed multidrug resistance in this study poses a threat of transfer of antibiotic resistance to human pathogens because of the close contact between ducks and human.     

Genetic diversity and antimicrobial resistance of Campylobacter and Salmonella strains isolated from decoys and raptors

Infections caused by thermotolerant Campylobacter spp. and Salmonella spp. are the leading causes of human gastroenteritis worldwide. Wild birds can act as reservoirs of both pathogens. A survey was carried out to determine the prevalence, genetic diversity and antimicrobial resistance of thermotolerant Campylobacter and Salmonella in waterfowl used as decoys and wild raptors in Andalusia (Southern Spain). The overall prevalence detected for Campylobacter was 5.9% (18/306; CI_95%: 3.25–8.52) in decoys and 2.3% (9/387; CI_95%: 0.82–3.83) in wild raptors. Isolates were identified as C. jejuni, C. coli and C. lari in both bird groups. Salmonella was isolated in 3.3% (10/306; CI_95%: 2.3–4.3) and 4.6% (18/394; CI_95%: 3.5–5.6) of the decoys and raptors, respectively. Salmonella Enteritidis and Typhimurium were the most frequently identified serovars, although Salmonella serovars Anatum, Bredeney, London and Mikawasima were also isolated. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis analysis of isolates showed higher genetic diversity within Campylobacter species compared to Salmonella serovars. Campylobacter isolates showed resistance to gentamicin, ciprofloxacin and tetracycline, while resistance to erythromycin and tetracycline was found in Salmonella isolates. The results indicate that both decoys and raptors can act as natural carriers of Campylobacter and Salmonella in Spain, which may have important implications for public and animal health.     

Evidence of cross-contamination by Campylobacter spp. of broiler carcasses using genetic characterization of isolates

Campylobacter is recognized as one of the leading cause of gastroenteritis worldwide, and is frequently isolated from the small intestines and ceca microflora of chickens. Twenty-one out of 81 Campylobacter-positive poultry flocks were selected to evaluate the genetic diversity of Campylobacter isolates and to study the distribution of genotypes among flocks. Campylobacter isolates recovered from chicken carcasses and ceca were analyzed by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). Little diversity was found among Campylobacter strains isolated from a given carcass, with a maximum of 2 different genotypes being present. However, at flock level, as many as 4 different profiles were observed. Typing of strains showed that most strains isolated from ceca were similar to those isolated from corresponding broiler carcasses. A total of 39 different macrorestriction profiles were observed, with evidence of Campylobacter cross-contamination among broiler flocks in Quebec slaughterhouses. Surprisingly, some flocks shared related genotypes both with and without sharing similar rearing practices. Existence of such cross-contamination must be considered to in developing strategies to control Campylobacter in chickens, and to avoid bacteria contamination of noncolonized flocks. Further typing studies of Campylobacter found in hatcheries, farm environment, and crates or trucks in Quebec might be helpful in elucidating the kinetics of broiler chicken Campylobacter contamination.     

Microbiological baseline study of poultry slaughtered in provincially inspected abattoirs in Alberta, Canada

Studies to determine baseline levels of microbial contaminants and foodborne bacterial pathogens are needed to evaluate the effectiveness of Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) programs, Good Manufacturing/Production Practices, and various interventions. In 2004 and 2005 poultry carcass rinses from provincially inspected abattoirs in Alberta, Canada, were tested to determine the levels of aerobic plate count bacteria, coliform bacteria, and generic Escherichia coli, the prevalence and levels of Campylobacter spp., and the prevalence of Salmonella spp. and Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC). Samples were collected from 3 high volume and 62 low volume abbatoirs. All samples (1296) were positive for aerobic plate count bacteria, with 98.8% of samples having counts of 100 000 or less colony forming units (CFU)/cm². Coliform bacteria were isolated from 99.7% of the 1296 carcasses and were recovered at levels of ≤ 1000 CFU/cm² for 98.3% of the samples. Generic E. coli were recovered from 99.1% of the 1296 carcasses at levels of ≤ 1000 CFU/cm² for 98.6% of the samples. Seventy five percent of 1234 samples that were tested for Campylobacter were positive; 37.5% of 1295 samples that were tested for Salmonella were positive; and only 2 of 1296 samples tested for STEC were positive (0.15%).     

Low levels of antibacterial drug resistance expressed by Gram-negative bacteria isolated from poultry carcasses in New Zealand

Abstract

AIM: To provide baseline data on the levels and patterns of antibacterial drug resistance expressed by Gram-negative bacteria isolated from poultry carcasses in New Zealand.

METHODS: Between July and December 2006, isolates of Escherichia coli (n=407) and Salmonella spp. (n=3) originating from carcass-rinse samples were submitted by testing laboratories affiliated to five major poultry processing plants. Isolates of Campylobacter jejuni (n=193) originating from retail poultry carcasses in 2005–2006 were retrieved from the Massey University archives. All isolates underwent disc diffusion susceptibility testing against panels of 12 (Enterobacteriaceae) and six (Campylobacter spp.) antibacterial drugs. Cephalothin-resistance in isolates of E. coli was confirmed using ETest strips, and confirmation of the resistance phenotypes for a subset of C. jejuni isolates used microbroth dilution assays. Patterns within the resistance phenotypes of the isolates were investigated using hierarchical clustering, and logistic regression modelling.

RESULTS: The majority of isolates (71.5% E. coli, 99% C. jejuni, and all three Salmonella spp. isolates) were fully susceptible to the drugs that were tested. Four (1%) E. coli isolates showed resistance to three or more drugs. The proportions of susceptible E. coli differed between the five processing plants. Resistances were detected in E. coli isolates, using disc diffusion to cephalothin (18.2%), ampicillin (4.4%), tetracycline (4.4%) and gentamicin (1.5%). There was an association between cephalothin-resistant isolates of E. coli and decreased susceptibility to gentamicin. Using ETests to ascertain the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of E. coli for cephalothin gave inconsistent results. One of 193 C. jejuni isolates was resistant to erythromycin, and microbroth dilution assays confirmed that this panel of C. jejuni was generally susceptible to antibacterial drugs.

CONCLUSIONS: The levels of resistance shown by Gram-negative bacteria isolated from chicken carcasses in New Zealand are among the lowest reported around the world. No resistance to extended-spectrum cephalosporin drugs was detected in E. coli, suggesting that CTX-M and AmpC beta-lactamases are rare or absent. Salmonella spp. are rarely isolated from poultry carcasses during routine testing in New Zealand, and the isolates identified during this study were fully susceptible to the drugs tested. A panel of C. jejuni isolates originating from retail poultry carcasses were susceptible to first-line and second-line antibacterial drugs. The use of cephalothin as a marker of resistance to first-generation cephalosporins may not be appropriate for non-type-specific E. coli of animal origin.     

Routes of transmission of Salmonella and Campylobacter in breeder turkeys

Salmonella and Campylobacter are frequent colonizers of the intestinal tracts of poultry and have often been associated with human foodborne illness. The entry, transmission, and prevalence of both pathogens have been extensively studied in chickens but little information is available for turkeys. This project monitored turkey breeder hens and toms from d of hatch to 65 wk of age with the objective of determining routes of transmission for Salmonella and Campylobacter throughout the turkey production cycle. Breeder poults were separated by sex and then into 2 groups (control and inoculated) for each sex. The inoculated group was orally gavaged with marker strains of both Salmonella and Campylobacter. The inoculated groups (toms and hens) were placed on the opposite side of a growout house from the uninoculated groups. Fecal samples, intestinal samples and organs, feed, drinkers, and potential vectors such as insects and mice, were analyzed at different times until 65 wk. Monitoring showed that Campylobacter spread rapidly and cross-contaminated turkeys throughout the growout house. For both Salmonella and Campylobacter, naturally occurring strains that were first isolated in control groups at wk 3 and 4, respectively, outcompeted marker strains several wk post inoculation and persisted in the flock. The most common naturally occurring strains were C. jejuni (tetracycline resistant), C. coli (kanamycin resistant), and S. Agona. Campylobacter and Salmonella also were isolated from flies and from a mouse, confirming the importance of proper pest control and biosecurity to reduce the spread of the bacteria.     

Recovery of Campylobacter and Salmonella Serovars From the Spleen,Liver and Gallbladder,and Ceca of Six-and Eight-Week-Old Commercial Broilers

Previous studies have demonstrated that when Campylobacter or Salmonella were either orally or intracloacally inoculated into day-old broiler chicks, within 1 h, these bacteria moved rapidly to the lymphoid organs. These bacteria were still present 1 wk after inoculation. Two different market-age (6 and 8 wk old) broilers were obtained from 2 commercial poultry operations and brought to the laboratory for analysis. Necropsy was limited to the removal of the spleen, liver and gallbladder (L-GB), and ceca using aseptic techniques. To reduce the possibility of cross-contamination between samples, the spleen and L-GB were aseptically removed before the ceca. Samples were individually bagged, and standard laboratory procedures for Campylobacter and Salmonella were carried out for all samples. Fifty-two 6-wk-old broilers were analyzed, and Campylobacter were found in 19 of 52 L-GB, 19 of 52 spleens, and 26 of 52 ceca. Salmonella were found in 5 of 52 L-GB, 8 of 52 spleen, and 4 of 52 ceca. Eighty 8-wk-old broilers were analyzed, and Campylobacter were found in 3 of 80 L-GB, 5 of 80 spleens, and 19 of 80 ceca. Salmonella were found in 41 of 80 L-GB, 38 of 80 spleens, and 52 of 80 ceca. The internal organs of the younger birds were more heavily contaminated with Campylobacter, whereas Salmonella was the predominant organism isolated in the older birds. All Campylobacter isolates were found to be Campylobacter jejuni. The predominant Salmonella serotype was Salmonella Typhimurium; however, 7 other serotypes were found. Overall, C. jejuni was found in 22 of 132 L-GB, 24 of 132 spleen, and 45 of 132 ceca, whereas Salmonella serovars were isolated from 46 of 132 L-GB, 46 of 132 spleen, and 56 of 132 ceca. There is no doubt that these bacteria are naturally present in these organs. The significance of these reservoirs in the internal organs of commercial broilers is yet to be determined but could play a role in the microbiology of the intestinal tract and hence the final food product.     

Colistin resistance and plasmid-mediated mcr genes in Escherichia coli and Salmonella isolated from pigs,pig carcass and pork in Thailand,Lao PDR and Cambodia border provinces

BackgroundColistin and carbapenem-resistant bacteria have emerged and become a serious public health concern, but their epidemiological data is still limited.ObjectivesThis study examined colistin and carbapenem resistance in Escherichia coli and Salmonella from pigs, pig carcasses, and pork in Thailand, Lao PDR, and Cambodia border provinces.MethodsThe phenotypic and genotypic resistance to colistin and meropenem was determined in E. coli and Salmonella obtained from pigs, pig carcasses, and pork (n = 1,619). A conjugative experiment was performed in all isolates carrying the mcr gene (s) (n = 68). The plasmid replicon type was determined in the isolates carrying a conjugative plasmid with mcr by PCR-based replicon typing (n = 7). The genetic relatedness of mcr-positive Salmonella (n = 11) was investigated by multi-locus sequence typing.ResultsColistin resistance was more common in E. coli (8%) than Salmonella (1%). The highest resistance rate was found in E. coli (17.8%) and Salmonella (1.7%) from Cambodia. Colistin-resistance genes, mcr-1, mcr-3, and mcr-5, were identified, of which mcr-1 and mcr-3 were predominant in E. coli (5.8%) and Salmonella (1.7%), respectively. The mcr-5 gene was observed in E. coli from pork in Cambodia. Two colistin-susceptible pig isolates from Thailand carried both mcr-1 and mcr-3. Seven E. coli and Salmonella isolates contained mcr-1 or mcr-3 associated with the IncF and IncI plasmids. The mcr-positive Salmonella from Thailand and Cambodia were categorized into two clusters with 94%–97% similarity. None of these clusters was meropenem resistant.ConclusionsColistin-resistant E. coli and Salmonella were distributed in pigs, pig carcasses, and pork in the border areas. Undivided-One Health collaboration is needed to address the issue.     

Tetracycline Resistance of Enterobacteriaceae Isolated From Feces of Synanthropic Birds

Tetracycline is a broad-spectrum antibiotic which is commonly used in humans and animals for treatment of bacterial infections. Therefore, tetracycline-resistant Enterobacteriaceae species found in the nature, humans, and animals are usually considered a serious health concern. The feces of birds that live with humans may be a source for of these antibiotic resistant bacteria. For this reason, presence of tetracycline-resistant Enterobacteriaceae in bird droppings collected from 18 different breeders and pet shops fed in Istanbul was investigated by cultural and molecular methods in terms of the presence of that a/b gene. In addition, susceptibilities of isolates to various antibiotics were also determined. The current study reported that Enterobacter cloacae, Citrobacter freundi, Escherichia coli, Edwardsiella spp., Enterobacter spp., Escherichia vulneris, Klebsiella pneumonia, Pantoea agglomerans, Proteus mirabilis, Pantoe spp., Pseudomonas spp., Serratia marcescens, Salmonella spp., Shigella spp. were isolated from the samples. Ninety-seven of the isolates (97/150) were resistant to tetracycline (65.2%). In addition, the isolates were resistant to other antibiotic medications and 114 of them (58%) evaluated as multi drug resistant. The tet (A) and tet (B) genes were found in bacteria isolated from synantrophic birds’ feces as 46.6% and 8%, respectively. Although working conditions are limited, the results obtained provide baseline information regarding antibiotic resistance to Enterocatericeae isolates obtained from captive birds’ feces. Thus, the results of the present study emphasize the necessity of genotypic resistance research in future studies to help maintain antibiotic treatment efficacy for Enterocatericeae infections.     

Prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility of Salmonella isolates in Pekin ducks from South Korea

An investigation was carried out to determine the prevalence and antibiotic resistance of Salmonella serotypes at South Korean duck farms. A total of 7119 samples collected from 72 duck farms in five provinces were examined from 2011 to 2012. The overall prevalence of Salmonella serotypes was 43.4% (69/159) in duck flocks from 65.2% (47/72) of the duck farms. Eighty-five strains were isolated from 69 duck flocks. Three serotypes of Salmonella enterica were identified such as S. Typhimurium (39/85), S. Enteritidis (44/85), and S. London (2/85). The prevalence of Salmonella infection decreased significantly in 3-week-old ducks compared to that in 1-week-old ducks (P < 0.05). All isolates except one were resistant to at least one antimicrobial and 27% of the isolates were resistant to 5–16 antimicrobials. Our findings provide baseline information on the degree of Salmonella infection and distribution of Salmonella serotypes in ducks and indicate that ducks should be considered an important source of foodborne pathogens.     

Campylobacter spp., Salmonella spp., Verocytotoxic Escherichia coli,and Antibiotic Resistance in Indicator Organisms in Wild Cervids

Faecal samples were collected, as part of the National Health Surveillance Program for Cervids (HOP) in Norway, from wild red deer, roe deer, moose and reindeer during ordinary hunting seasons from 2001 to 2003. Samples from a total of 618 animals were examined for verocytotoxic E. coli (VTEC); 611 animals for Salmonella and 324 animals for Campylobacter. A total of 50 samples were cultivated from each cervid species in order to isolate the indicator bacterial species E. coli and Enterococcus faecalis/E. faecium for antibiotic resistance pattern studies. Salmonella and the potentially human pathogenic verocytotoxic E. coli were not isolated, while Campylobacter jejuni jejuni was found in one roe deer sample only. Antibiotic resistance was found in 13 (7.3%) of the 179 E. coli isolates tested, eight of these being resistant against one type of antibiotic only. The proportion of resistant E. coli isolates was higher in wild reindeer (24%) than in the other cervids (2.2%). E. faecalis or E. faecium were isolated from 19 of the samples, none of these being reindeer. All the strains isolated were resistant against one (84%) or more (16%) antibiotics. A total of 14 E. faecalis-strains were resistant to virginiamycin only. The results indicate that the cervid species studied do not constitute an important infectious reservoir for either the human pathogens or the antibiotic resistant microorganisms included in the study.     

Antibiotic Resistance in Salmonella Isolated from Tegus (Tupinambis spp.)

In recent years, an increase in human clinical cases of reptile-associated salmonellosis has been identified, and it has been attributed to the increased popularity of these animals as pets. Limited information is available regarding the distribution of Salmonella spp. serotypes in different reptile species and the antimicrobial resistance patterns of Salmonella spp. isolated from pet reptiles. This article describes the prevalence of Salmonella spp., distribution of serotypes, and antibiotic susceptibility patterns from isolates cultured from cloacal swabs obtained from 14 tegu lizards (Tupinambis spp.). Eighteen strains of Salmonella belonging to different serotypes were obtained from the 14 tegu lizards. Of the 18 Salmonella spp. isolates, 8 (44.4%) were from Salmonella subspecies I, with a majority of isolates belonging to the Eastbourne serotype (3 strains), Nottingham serotype (2 strains), and Brancaster serotype (2 strains), and only 1 belonging to the Apapa serotype. Less common serotypes were detected in 5 isolates, including 2 each belonging to Salmonella subspecies II and IIIb, respectively, and 1 to Salmonella subspecies IIIa. The serotype of 5 other Salmonella isolates could not be determined. All 18 isolates were resistant to at least 6 of the antimicrobial drugs tested. These results confirm the potential zoonotic risk from handling reptiles, suggesting that measures to educate the reptile-owning public are necessary.     

Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica isolated from chicken carcasses and environment at slaughter in Reunion Island: prevalence, genetic characterization and antibiotic susceptibility

Salmonella contamination of 71 chicken broiler flocks was investigated at the slaughterhouse in Reunion Island between October 2007 and January 2009. Samples were collected from live broiler chickens and chicken carcasses as well as the slaughterhouse environment. Salmonella spp. was isolated from 40 of 71 (56 % with a confidence interval 5 % [45–67]) broiler chicken flocks at slaughter. The most prominent serovars were Blockley (31 %), Typhimurium and Brancaster (14 %), Hadar (10 %), Salmonella multidrug resistant clinical organisms serotypes 1,4,[5],12:i:-, and Virchow (8 %) and Livingstone, St. Paul, Seftenberg, Llandoff, Infantis and Indiana. At the farm, 27 % of the broiler chicken flocks tested positive for Salmonella spp. Salmonella spp. was isolated from 124 of 497 environmental samples (25 %). In most cases, there was no relationship between pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) pattern and antibiotic resistance pattern. The predominant Salmonella serovars were susceptible to most of the tested antibiotic drugs, but S. Hadar exhibited multidrug resistance. This study highlighted the primary source of Salmonella was the farm of origin and downstream stages in processing could not remedy to but amplify this Salmonella contamination.     

Organic Acids Placed into the Cloaca to Reduce Campylobacter Contamination of Broiler Skin During Defeathering

Campylobacter numbers on broiler carcasses can increase dramatically during defeathering because of leakage of contaminated gut contents in the feather-picking machine. Food-grade organic acids have been shown to be effective in killing bacteria. Placement of organic acids into the cloaca prior to defeathering was tested to determine if such a treatment could lower the number of Campylobacter that escape and contaminate broiler breast skin during automated feather removal. Campylobacter numbers on the breast skin of treated carcasses increased during defeathering but resulted in numbers that were only about 2% of those observed on control carcasses. Placement of food-grade organic acids in the cloaca of broiler carcasses may be useful as a means to lessen the impact of automated defeathering on the microbiological quality of carcasses during processing.     

Rosemary oil,clove oil,and a mix of thyme-orange essential oils inhibit Salmonella and Campylobacter in vitro

The demand for foods that are free of pathogens and chemical residues has increased interest in the use of plant-based products as natural antimicrobials. Essential oils (EO) from plants are natural compounds that have been shown to have antimicrobial properties against food-borne pathogens. The objective of the current study was to determine the ability of various concentrations of 4 selected EO to inhibit Salmonella enterica (3 different serovars and a cocktail of all 3) and Campylobacter (2 strains of Campylobacter jejuni, one strain of Campylobacter coli, and a cocktail of all 3). The disc diffusion method was used to screen the oils of thyme, orange, rosemary, and clove oil. The minimum inhibitory concentration or minimum bactericidal concentration of the EO was determined using a 2-fold broth dilution method at concentrations ranging from 0.0008 to 1.000% (vol/vol). Two independent experiments were performed. Zones of inhibition (ZI) were expressed in millimeters and concentrations were expressed in percentages. All the oils demonstrated antibacterial activity against the strains tested. However, thyme oil demonstrated the strongest inhibitory activity than other oils against Salmonella (ZI of 18.5 mm). In general, Campylobacter was more susceptible to the antibacterial activity of EO, with plates containing thyme or clove oil showing no growth. Orange oil was also highly effective on Campylobacter, with a mean ZI of 17.5 mm. The least expensive treatment effective against both Salmonella and Campylobacter was a combination of 100% concentrations of thyme and orange oil combined on a 50:50 proportion. Tested on the same strains of bacteria, the thyme-orange combination (TOC) had a mean ZI of 20.5 mm for Salmonella and 21.3 mm for Campylobacter. Thyme-orange combination demonstrated a synergetic effect against Salmonella, but no such effect was noticed for Campylobacter. On average, 0.14% TOC was required to inhibit both pathogens. Hence, TOC can be considered as a potential antimicrobial for future studies on food systems.