Ultrasonographic examination of the stifle region in cattle--normal appearance.

The stifle region of 18 healthy cattle (14 cows, four bull calves) and the stifles of five bovine cadavers were examined using 7.5 MHz linear or convex and 5 MHz sector transducers. The normal ultrasonographic appearance of soft tissues and bony structures was studied.The homogeneously echogenic patellar and collateral ligaments, the combined tendon of the long digital extensor and peroneus tertius muscles, the popliteus tendon, the anechoic articular cartilage of the femoral trochlea, the echogenic menisci and the hyperechoic bone surfaces were imaged successfully in all cattle and cadavers. The boundaries of the joint pouches only became partially identifiable, when small amounts of anechoic fluid were present in the medial and lateral femorotibial joint pouches. After experimental filling in cadavers, the distended synovial cavities were imaged as clearly demarcated, anechoic areas. Measurement values of cross-sectional diameters of the ligaments, tendons and the popliteal lymph node, the width of normal joint pouches, where visible, and articular cartilage thickness are presented. The established results should serve as reference data for ultrasonography of bovine stifle disorders.     

Ultrasonographic examination of the carpal region in cattle--normal appearance

The carpal region was examined ultrasonographically in 18 healthy cattle (14 cows, 4 bull calves) and five bovine cadavers in order to determine the normal appearance of the carpal soft tissues using 7.5 MHz linear transducers.The course of the echogenic flexor and extensor tendons over the carpus and the joint spaces interposed between the articular bone surfaces were successfully imaged in all carpi. The palmar vessels were easily visualized in live animals. The lumina of carpal tendon sheaths and the boundaries of the carpal joint pouches could not be defined. Small anechoic fluid filled areas were visualized only at the level of the joint spaces. After experimental filling, the distended synovial cavities were imaged as well demarcated anechoic areas. The cross-sectional diameters of the extensor tendons, width of the palmar joint pouches and intraluminal diameters of the palmar vessels were measured.The results presented serve as reference data for ultrasonographic investigation of disorders of the bovine carpus.     

Ultrasonographic examination of the hip joint region and bony pelvis in cattle

Transcutaneous and transrectal ultrasonographic examination of the hip joint region and the pelvis was carried out in 7 cadavers, transcutaneous ultrasonography in 17 healthy young and adult cattle, and transrectal sonography was performed in 12 healthy cows in order to study the normal ultrasonographic appearance of these regions. 7.5 MHz linear-, 5.0 MHz and 3.5 MHz convex transducers and a 7.5 MHz rectal probe were used. The bone surfaces of the greater trochanter, the femoral neck and head, the acetabulum and the other pelvic bones were visualised as hyperechoic contours. The coxofemoral joint space was identified in all cadavers and live cattle. The joint pouch could not be visualised, neither in cadavers nor in live cattle. After experimental filling of the coxofemoral joint pouch by injection of 35-45 ml eosin-solution it appeared as a large anechoic zone between the articular surface and the echogenic joint capsule. The inner contours of the pelvic girdle, both iliosacral joint spaces, the abdominal aorta and the external iliac arteries were depicted clearly by transrectal ultrasonography. The practical application of diagnostic ultrasound in these regions is demonstrated in clinical patients suffering from a septic coxarthritis and a sequestration of a part of the tuber coxae following an open fracture. These results serve as reference data for ultrasonographic investigation of disorders of the hip joint and the pelvic region in cattle.     

Arthroscopic approaches to the fetlock joint of adult cattle: A cadaver study

The objective of the present study was to describe the arthroscopic anatomy of the bovine fetlock joint using one palmar/plantar and three dorsal joint approaches. A comparative anatomic, ultrasonographic and arthroscopic study using 20 cadaveric feet from 13 non-lame adult dairy cows was performed. Arthroscopy was accomplished using a rigid arthroscope to view the synovial cavities with their synovial villi and parts of the following structures: the distal ends of the metacarpal/metatarsal III/IV bones with their trochleae and sagittal ridges, synovial grooves, the articular surfaces of the proximal sesamoid bones, the proximal aspects of the first phalanges, the lateral and medial collateral ligaments, the suspensory ligament and the interdigital ligaments as parts of the interosseus muscle, the cruciate sesamoidean ligaments, the communication site between the lateral and medial pouch in the palmar/plantar area, and dorsally the septum between the lateral and the medial pouch. The technique allowed a good overall view of most relevant structures in the sound cadaver joint. Further investigations are warranted to evaluate the diagnostic, therapeutic and prognostic applications of these techniques in the treatment of septic arthritis.     

Ultrasonographic examination of the musculoskeletal system in cattle

Ultrasound machines with 7.5 to 5.0MHz linear transducers are well suited for rapid and straightforward differentiation of soft tissue swelling in the musculoskeletal system of cattle; in proximal limb regions 3.5MHz convex scanners allow better imaging. The main indications for ultrasonography of the musculoskeletal system in cattle are suspected arthritis, tenosynovitis, bursitis, abscesses, haematomas, diagnosis of muscle and tendon lesions, and generally the evaluation of soft tissue swellings everywhere that cannot be diagnosed based on clinical examination. The examiner starts by obtaining a general overview of the affected region for orientation purposes. This is achieved by locating and identifying anatomical landmarks, thereafter one can search for pathological changes by examination of the region of interest in longitudinal and transverse planes from all sides. The ultrasonographic investigation should follow a standardised systematic protocol. Normal synovial cavities in cattle are difficult or impossible to visualize via ultrasonography because of the very small physiological amount of synovial fluid. Thus, effusion that is easily visualized usually indicates a pathological process like arthritis, tenosynovitis or bursitis. Ultrasonography provides accurate information about the location and size of lesions or fluid-filled cavities, the nature of the content and an exact measurement of the distance from pathologically altered structures to the skin surface. Targeted centesis of synovial or other cavities can be carried out after a preliminary ultrasonographic inspection. Characterization of the lesions and a thorough preoperative inspection of affected regions are of enormous benefit for planning surgery and treatment.     

Anatomische und röntgenologische Untersuchungen am Schultergelenk des Geparden (Acinonyx jubatus)

Anatomical structures of shoulder joints of five adult cheetahs were examined by dissection, corrosion casts and radiography. The bones, capsules and auxiliary synovial devices were described, as well as ligaments and adjacent muscles. The cheetah shoulder has many similarities with the shoulder joint of the domestic cat, but also considerable differences. Proper osteological features were the large supraglenoid tubercle, the caudally directed coracoid process and the extension of the articular surface of the scapula to the lateral area of the supraglenoid tubercle. On the proximal end of the humerus the width of the head of humerus, the facet of infraspinatus muscle as a shallow cavity with the insertion of the infraspinatus muscle around it and two raised roughnesses on the proximal end of the tricipital line for the insertions of the lateral glenohumeral ligament and the teres minor muscle were noticeable. The insertion of the joint capsule was mainly on the glenoid labrum, only in part of the articular surface on the lateral area of the supraglenoid tubercle laterally on the scapula. The joint capsule formed a supra- and infraspinatus recess laterally, an intertubercular tendon sheet for the biceps brachii muscle cranially, and a bipartited subscapular recess medially. An extracapsular transverse ligament passing the intertubercular groove, a laterally capsular strengthening—called lateral glenohumeral ligament—and an intracapsular medial glenohumeral ligament could be found. The latter one was joined to the capsule by a mesoligament, dividing the subscapular recess into two pouches.     

Ultrasonographic findings of disorders of the tarsal region in 97 cattle--arthritis, bursitis, tenosynovitis, periarticular abscess and vein thrombosis

The clinical, radiographic, ultrasonographic and centesis findings of 97 cattle with disorders of the tarsal region (arthritis, bursitis, tenosynovitis, abscess, vein thrombosis) were reviewed (1994-2006), and the typical ultrasonographic findings of different tarsal disorders in cattle are presented. The following criteria were assessed: echogenicity, echopattern, size, shape, appearance of the borders of synovial or other cavities. Ultrasonographic findings were compared with the clinical, radiographic and arthrocentesis results and with intraoperative and/or necropsy findings. 50 cattle suffered from one tarsal disease only, in 47 cattle--up to three different--concurrent disorders in one tarsal region were identified. The afflicted synovial cavities and abscesses were definitely differentiated ultrasonographically in all cattle suffering from tarsal disorders a comprehensive diagnosis could be achieved due to the easy and rapid ultrasonographic differentiation of the incriminated soft tissues.     

ULTRASONOGRAPHY OF THE EQUINE BICIPITAL TENDON REGION: A CASE HISTORY REPORT AND REVIEW OF ANATOMY

The equine shoulder region is difficult to investigate by conventional imaging modalities. Diagnostic ultrasound has proven valuable for investigation of soft tissue injuries of the human shoulder. In a horse with shoulder lameness, the authors employed diagnostic ultrasound to augment the use of conventional radiography. A defect in the subchondral bone layer of the medial humeral tuberosity, with adjacent bony fragments were clearly identified with ultrasound. Ultrasound was used for initial evaluation of the bicipital tendon and bursa. The technique was subsequently used to follow and evaluate the post-operative condition of the proximal cranial humerus, bicipital tendon and bursa in this patient. The bicipital regions of 2 immature and 3 adult normal horses were also examined with to illustrate the normal ultrasonographic anatomy of the cranial shoulder region.     

DIAGNOSTIC ULTRASOUND IMAGING OF SOFT TISSUES IN THE BOVINE DISTAL LIMB

In this study sonographic images of healthy flexor tendons, digital flexor tendon sheaths, metacarpophalangeal and metatarsophalangeal joints, and proximal and distal interphalangeal joints of the bovine limb were made. Then, synovial cavities in cadavers were filled with the necessary amount of fluid to make the lumina visible sonographically. After injecting 30–40 ml of saline solution into the digital flexor tendon sheath and into the metacarpophalangeal and metatarsophalangeal joints, or 8 ml in the proximal interphalangeal joint and 10 ml in the distal interphalangeal joint, the pouches of these synovial cavities were clearly demarcated. Afterwards, the sonographic image of synovial cavities distended by various inflammatory content were described. When the sonographic findings were compared to the findings in clinical patients, centesis and intraoperative procedures, there appeared to be a relationship as to the extent and location of the disorders as well as to the nature of the synovial effusion. Finally, we identified which planes on diseased bovine distal limbs were appropriate for obtaining optimal sonographic images.     

ULTRASONOGRAPHIC EVALUATION OF THE CANINE SHOULDER

The aim of this study was to determine the normal ultrasonographic anatomy of the canine shoulder. Fourteen shoulders from 7 clinically normal mid-sized dogs were radiographed and imaged using high frequency ultrasound. Each shoulder was isolated postmortem, and the ultrasonographic and gross anatomy was studied during dissection. The ultrasonographic appearance of the shoulder specimens was similar to that found in the live dogs. Twenty-four shoulders isolated postmortem from 12 variably sized dogs were also used to characterize the normal ultrasound anatomy over a range of sizes. Important anatomic structures that could be consistently evaluated were the biceps tendon and bursa, the bicipital groove surface, the supraspinatous tendon, the infraspinatous tendon, the teres minor tendon, and the caudal aspect of the humeral head. Results of ultrasonographic examination of 4 dogs with shoulder lameness are described to illustrate some applications of canine shoulder ultrasonography in the evaluation of the canine shoulder. In these dogs, ultrasound was a valuable tool to evaluate effusion and synovial proliferation within the bicipital bursa, supraspinatous and biceps tendinitis, biceps tendon strain, and dystrophic calcification.     

Lameness associated with the bicipital bursa in an Arab stallion.

Severe, chronic lameness in the left forelimb of a five-year-old Arab stallion was localised to the bicipital bursa by local anaesthesia and gamma scintigraphy. Radiographic and ultrasonographic examinations of the proximal humeral tubercles and bicipital bursa revealed new bone production in the region of the intertubercular grooves and irregularities in the density of the soft tissues of the bicipital tendon and bursa. An endoscopic examination of the bicipital bursa with a standard arthroscope under general anaesthesia was a useful diagnostic procedure. The stallion was euthanased, and marked fibrocartilage fibrillation and formation of adhesions were found postmortem, confirming a diagnosis of chronic fibrinous bursitis.     

Autologous Platelet Concentrates as a Treatment for Shoulder Injury in a Horse

Shoulder injury is an uncommon cause of lameness in horses. Trauma to the shoulder region may produce bone and soft-tissue damage. The present study describes the case of a severe left shoulder injury caused by blunt trauma in a 6-year-old gelding. Clinical and ultrasonographic examination revealed fracture of the supraglenoid tuberosity of the scapula and of the lesser tubercle of the humerus with fiber disruption and hematoma of the biceps brachii, bicipital bursitis, and suprascapular nerve damage. The gelding was successfully treated with three intralesional injections of autologous platelet concentrates administered at 2-week intervals. Although all these combined injuries took a minimum of 18 to 24 months for full recovery, the gelding reached full recuperation of the affected limb in 10 months. These results suggest that injections of autologous platelet concentrate could provide a therapeutic benefit in the treatment of shoulder bone fractures and soft-tissue injuries in horses.     

Ultrasonography in gastrointestinal disease in cattle

Ultrasonography is an ideal diagnostic tool for investigating gastrointestinal disorders in cattle. It is performed on standing non-sedated cattle using a 3.5 MHz linear transducer. In animals with traumatic reticuloperitonitis, inflammatory fibrinous changes, and abscesses can be imaged; however, magnets and foreign bodies are difficult to visualize because of the gas content of the reticulum. Ultrasonography can be used to assess the size, position and contents of the abomasum. Percutaneous ultrasound-guided abomasocentesis can be performed to evaluate the nature and chemical composition of its contents. In left displacement of the abomasum, the abomasum is seen between the left abdominal wall and the rumen. It contains fluid ingesta ventrally and a gas cap of varying size dorsally. Occasionally, the abomasal folds are seen in the ingesta. In cattle with right displacement of the abomasum, the liver is displaced medially from the right abdominal wall by the abomasum, which has an ultrasonographic appearance similar to that described for left displacement. Motility and diameter of the intestine are the most important criteria for ultrasonographic assessment of ileus. However, the cause of the ileus is rarely determined using ultrasonography. In cases with ileus of the small intestine, there is at least one region of dilatation of the intestine and motility is reduced or absent. In cattle with caecal dilatation, the caecum can always be imaged from the right lateral abdominal wall. The wall of the caecum closest to the transducer appears as a thick, echogenic, semi-circular line.     

Coxofemoral joint radiography in standing cattle

The objective of this study was to establish a technique for radiographic examination of the coxofemoral joint and adjacent bony structures in standing cattle. Left (or right) 30° dorsal-right (or left) ventral radiographic views of the coxofemoral joint region of standing cattle (n = 10) with hind limb lameness were evaluated retrospectively. In addition, an experimental study of oblique laterolateral views of the coxofemoral joint region of a bovine skeleton at angles of 15-45° was carried out to determine the optimal position for visualization of the hip region. In the 10 clinical patients, the bodies of the ilium and ischium, the acetabulum and proximal third of the femur could be assessed. Six of these cattle had fractures of the body of the ilium and body of the ischium, five with and one without involvement of the acetabulum, two had craniodorsal and one caudoventral luxation of the femur and one had a femoral neck fracture. The described laterodorsal-lateroventral radiographs of the hip region in standing cattle were suitable for assessing the coxofemoral joint, the proximal aspect of the femur and parts of the ischium, ilium and pubis. After testing the optimal angle on the skeleton, it was seen that distortion and superimposition were minimized by positioning the X-ray beam at an angle of 25° to the horizontal plane. It can be concluded that the described technique improves the evaluation of injuries of the coxofemoral region in cattle. With the appropriate angle, the technique can also be applied in recumbent cattle.     

Ultrasonography of the reticulum, rumen, omasum and abomasum before, during and after ingestion of hay and grass silage in 10 calves

The reticulum, rumen, omasum and abomasum were assessed via ultrasonography in 10 healthy female calves before, during and 2h after feeding hay and grass silage. The evaluations were made using an ultrasound machine with a 5.0MHz linear transducer. The reticulum could be visualized before feeding in all the calves. Its appearance and pattern of contractions were similar to those in adult cattle, although the amplitude (5.2±1.06cm) and velocity (3.5±1.42cm/s) of the first contraction were markedly less than in adult cattle. The position and size of the entire rumen including the dorsal and ventral sacs and the ruminal contents were assessed. Except for its smaller size, the ultrasonographic appearance of the omasum of calves was similar to that of adult cattle. The abomasum was seen to the left and right of the ventral midline before feeding in all calves; it occupied considerably more space on the left than the right. Compared with its appearance before feeding, the ultrasonographic appearance of the rumen, omasum and abomasum did not change during or after feeding. Ultrasonography is an ideal imaging tool for evaluating the reticulum, rumen, omasum and abomasum before, during and after feeding in calves.     

ULTRASONOGRAPHIC ANATOMY OF THE TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT IN HEALTHY PURE-BRED SPANISH HORSES

The objective was to describe the normal ultrasonographic appearance of the soft tissue and bony structures of the temporomandibular joint in Pure-Bred Spanish horses using frozen and plastinated sections performed as anatomical references. The temporomandibular joint of five healthy Pure-Bred Spanish horses and the head specimens from 12 Pure-Bred Spanish cadavers that were subjected to euthanasia for reasons other than temporomandibular joint problems were studied sonographically and anatomically. An 11 MHz linear-array transducer was used to obtain longitudinal ultrasonographic images of the temporomandibular joint from rostral, lateral, and caudal approaches. For anatomic study, a gross dissection was performed on six temporomandibular joints. The other six head specimens were first frozen at -30 degrees C for 48h and then, at -70 degrees C for a week. Three millimeter thick anatomic sections were collected in the same plane as the sonographic planes. These sections were plastinated, photographed, and compared with the corresponding ultrasonographic images. The articular surfaces, the articular cartilage, the disc, the intra-articular fat tissue, the joint capsule, and other structures were clearly visualized sonographically. Structures identified on the ultrasonographic images were in accordance with those identified on the corresponding anatomic sections. We confirmed the appearance of structures of the equine temporomandibular joint that have been described previously but we also identified the caudal fibrous expansion of the disc, the caudal compartment of the dorsal synovial pouch, and the lateral ligament. Our results define a reference that will aid in sonographic evaluation of the equine temporomandibular joint region.     

A study of articular surfaces and synovial fossae of the pectoral limb of swine.

Articular surfaces of the pectoral limb were studied in 50 swine and are described in detail. Synovial fossae were not present at birth but were found commonly on the articular surface of the scapula, distal humerus, proximal radius, distal radius and distal surfaces of the intermediate carpal bone after four to five months of age. When present, they were bilaterally symmetrical and were located at the depth of a concavity of the articular surface. Microscopically, synovial fossae appeared as an invagination of articular cartilage extending into subchondral bone. Evidence of endochondral bone formation was less apparent at the depth of synovial fossae than in areas of weight bearing cartilage.     

Metacarpophalangeal Joint Synovial Pad Fibrotic Proliferation in 63 Horses

Medical records, radiographs, and sonograms of 63 horses with metacarpophalangeal joint synovial pad proliferation were examined retrospectively. All horses had lameness, joint effusion, or both signs associated with one or both metacarpophalangeal joints. Bony remodeling and concavity of the distodorsal aspect of the third metacarpal bone (Mc3) just proximal to the metacarpal condyles was identified by radiography in 71 joints (93%); 24 joints (32%) had radiographic evidence of a chip fracture located at the proximal dorsal aspect of the proximal phalanx. Fifty-four joints (71%) were examined by ultrasound. The mean ± SD sagittal thickness of the synovial pad was 11.3 ± 2.8 mm. Seventy-nine percent of the horses had single joint involvement with equal distribution between the right and left forelimbs. Sixty-eight joints in 55 horses were treated by arthroscopic surgery. Sixty joints (88%) had debridement of chondral or osteochondral fragmentation from the dorsal surface of Mc3 beneath the synovial pad and 30 joints (44%) had a bone chip fracture removed from the medial or lateral proximal dorsal eminence of the proximal phalanx. Complete or partial excision of both medial and lateral synovial pads was completed in 42 joints. Only the medial synovial pad was excised or trimmed in 21 joints, and 5 joints had only the lateral pad removed. Eight joints in eight horses were treated by stall rest, administration of intra-articular medication and systemic nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Follow-up information was obtained for 50 horses treated surgically and for eight horses treated medically. Forty-three (86%) that had surgery returned to racing; 34 (68%) raced at an equivalent or better level than before surgery. Three (38%) of the medically treated horses returned to racing; only one horse raced better than the preinjury level. Horses that returned to racing at a similar or equal level of performance were significantly younger in age than horses returning at a lower level or not racing (P≤.05). Overall, horses with synovial pad proliferation treated by arthroscopic surgery had a good prognosis for return to racing at a level equal or better than before injury.     

Three‐dimensional CT observation of position and movability of the scapula in the horse using carcasses of Falabella

The three‐dimensionally real position and movement of the scapula in the lateral side of the ribcage could not be clarified in the horse, since the body size of the horse is too large to apply the CT scanning and image analysis methods. In this study, therefore, we examined the position and the movability of scapula using a carcass of the Falabella which is one of the smallest breeds of the horse. The whole skeletal system in thoracic part of the Falabella could be three‐dimensionally observed by CT scanning method. The three‐dimensional images show that the scapula cranially slides and the ventral part of the scapula dorso‐cranially rotates, when the shoulder joint moves to the most cranial position as simulation. The three‐dimensional rotation angle was approximately 10 degrees. As a result of comparative osteology of the scapula between Falabella and the large draft horse, the infraspinous fossa was caudally enlarged in the larger draft horse, whereas the Falabella had narrower infraspinous fossa. We suggest that it may be due to the adaptational morphological change in the scapula bearing various body weights among breeds. The three‐dimensional CT image analysis and the simulation in carcass contribute to the analysis of the bone movements of the horse during walking and running locomotion as well as the motion analysis from external functional‐morphological data.