杜鹃对两种远距离的近缘苇莺的巢寄生:一个平行协同进化的案例?(英文)

大杜鹃(Cuculus canorus)通常寄生小型雀形目鸟类。由于杜鹃雏鸟的排他性拱卵或拱雏,导致宿主繁殖失败,因此宿主进化出如卵识别能力的反寄生策略。反过来,杜鹃也同时进化出如模拟宿主卵的寄生策略。于是两者之间的相互作用可形成类似军备竞赛的协同进化关系。在匈牙利,大苇莺(Acrocephalus arundinaceus)是大杜鹃的主要宿主,寄生率可高达约 40-65%。以往被认为是大苇莺一个亚种的东方大苇莺(A. orientalis)在日本的种群也被大杜鹃寄生(25-40%)。通过采用光纤光谱仪量化大杜鹃及其宿主的卵色特征,我们比较了东、西半球大杜鹃对两种苇莺的寄生模拟程度。鸟类视觉模型显示,对于可见光颜色,杜鹃与宿主之间卵色的模拟程度在匈牙利高于日本,但匈牙利杜鹃和宿主均较大的卵色变异程度可导致卵色模拟困难。杜鹃与苇莺卵色的量度差异在日本较低,这被证明是宿主拒卵行为的一个重要影响因素。苇莺对大杜鹃卵的拒绝率在日本(35%)和匈牙利(37%)相似。与匈牙利不同,在日本,宿主对杜鹃寄生的应对策略如拒卵行为,先于杜鹃的反适应对策。我们认为,两种近缘物种大苇莺对杜鹃寄生的不同反寄生行为,代表了协同进化军备竞赛的不同演化阶段。     

中国的寄生性杜鹃及其宿主多样性(英文)

通过多年的调查资料、观鸟爱好者所提供的图片和文献整理,我们对多杜鹃寄生系统下的中国寄生性杜鹃及其宿主的多样性进行了系统研究。在中国分布的17种寄生性杜鹃中,迄今已发现11种杜鹃的宿主达55种,均为雀形目鸟类,隶属于15科,其中莺科、鸫科和画眉科分别占到寄生记录总数的 22.6%、20.8% 和 17.0%。大杜鹃(Cuculus canorus)的宿主种类最多(45.5%),是中国最常见、宿主多样性最丰富的寄生性杜鹃。不同种类的寄生性杜鹃的卵色不同,而且杜鹃与其宿主之间均呈现明显的卵色多态性,为典型的卵色协同进化。基于人眼观察,大杜鹃、小杜鹃(C. poliocephalus)和八声杜鹃(Cacomantis merulinus)的卵色均与其宿主高度模拟,而鹰鹃(Cuculus sparverioides)、中杜鹃(C. saturatus)和翠金鹃(Chrysococcyx maculatus)则产非模拟的卵。目前仍有6种寄生性杜鹃的宿主不详,亟待加强研究。     

杜鹃模拟鹰及杜鹃外形多态性的进化(英文)

很早人们就已发现一些寄生性繁殖的杜鹃,其外形与Accipiter属的鹰类非常相似。最近的实验表明,大杜鹃(Cuculus canorus)模拟鹰类有助于其接近宿主大苇莺(Acrocephalus scirpaceus)的巢。不过,大苇莺却能够通过公众信息传递来识别大杜鹃的这一计谋。反过来,这也导致了杜鹃外形多态性的进化,以避免宿主对杜鹃的识别。通过比较研究,我们发现在寄生性的杜鹃中,模拟鹰类外形(如虹膜黄色,胸腹部具斑纹,脚黄)的杜鹃种类具有明显的外形多态性(29%的种类),远高于不模拟鹰类外形的杜鹃(仅8%的种类具有多态性)。系统发生分析进一步证实了模拟鹰类外形与杜鹃多态性进化之间的相关性。我们认为,杜鹃对鹰类的动态模拟很可能促进了杜鹃外形多态性的进化,以避免宿主对杜鹃的识别。     

澳大利亚的杜鹃及其寄生适应性(英文)

长期以来,人们一直对寄生性繁殖的杜鹃所采用的种种计谋惊叹不已。本文对澳大利亚的寄生杜鹃如何增加寄生巢的可获得性、如何寻找和接近巢以及如何让宿主接受它们的寄生卵与雏鸟进行了综述。这些杜鹃所采用的对策,有一些是世界上其他杜鹃种类也采用的,但有一些对策,如产隐蔽的卵和模拟的雏鸟,却似乎仅见于澳大利亚的杜鹃。泛性寄生的杜鹃因为要应对较多种类的宿主,难度自然远大于专一性寄生的杜鹃种类,这同时也解释了为什么不同种类的杜鹃进化出不同的寄生策略,以避免不同宿主的识别。     

对大杜鹃30多年研究的综述:知识积累和未来展望(英文)

在欧洲,有超过125种宿主鸟类的巢里都发现有大杜鹃(Cuculus canorus)的卵,但其实常被大杜鹃寄生和利用的宿主种类并不多。寄生不同宿主的大杜鹃可分成显著不同的宿主专一类群(gentes),迄今欧洲已有超过20种宿主专一类群被报道。每一类群的大杜鹃雌鸟所产的卵的颜色和卵形(如斑点)都较为一致,并专门寄生某一特定的宿主鸟。宿主专一类群可同域出现,也可因为地理隔离而不同,甚至仅局限于宿主分布区的某一区域。不同的宿主专一类群可通过卵的不同而加以区分,在大多数情况下,每一宿主专一类群的卵都模拟其寄生的宿主的卵。为什么一些雀形目鸟类被寄生,而另一些却不被利用?为什么同一宿主种群内一些个体能识别和拒绝杜鹃卵,而另一些个体却接受?为什么同一宿主鸟的不同地理种群对杜鹃卵的识别和拒绝变化很大?大杜鹃不同的宿主专一类群之间的差异到底有多大?本文根据目前已有的知识探讨了这些问题,并对未来的研究进行了展望。     

大杜鹃(Cuculus canorus)与其宿主灰喉鸦雀(Paradoxornis alphonsianus)的卵色模拟(英文)

卵色多态性在大杜鹃(Cuculus canorus)与其宿主灰喉鸦雀(Paradoxornis alphonsianus)中非常明显,在同一地理种群内,大杜鹃和宿主灰喉鸦雀均分别对应出现了蓝色、浅蓝色和白色的卵。已有研究表明这很可能是两者协同进化过程中分裂选择的结果。然而,仅仅基于人眼评估的卵色分析结果是不够的,一是无法准确量化,二则由于人眼无法探测到鸟类所能感知的紫外光(UV)部分。本研究采用光纤光谱仪,量化比较了大杜鹃与其宿主灰喉鸦雀卵色的多态性及模拟程度。结果表明,光谱仪量化结果与基于人眼评估的卵色模拟情况大致吻合,同时发现大杜鹃与灰喉鸦雀二者卵色在紫外光部分也相当模拟。然而,产白色卵的杜鹃与产白色卵的鸦雀之间的模拟程度,要低于产蓝色卵的杜鹃和鸦雀。这表明,灰喉鸦雀产白色卵很可能是由于杜鹃寄生压力所导致的后进化结果。     

南美牛鹂宿主的反寄生防御行为(英文)

牛鹂(Molothrus属,拟鹂科)是一个单起源的类群,包括现存的5种寄生性繁殖鸟类。啸声牛鹂(M.rufoaxillaris)、巨牛鹂(M.oryzivorus)和紫辉牛鹂(M.bonariensis)主要分布在南美。其中,啸声牛鹂与紫辉牛鹂分别代表较古老和最近进化的两个支系,因此有着各自不同的与宿主协同进化的历史。本文研究了紫辉牛鹂的宿主莺鹪鹩(Troglodytes aedon)的拒卵行为,同时综述了以上3种牛鹂的不同宿主的反寄生防御行为。3种牛鹂的宿主均能识别和拒绝非模拟的寄生卵,其中巨牛鹂和紫辉牛鹂的大部分宿主用嘴叼卵,而啸声牛鹂的主要宿主栗翅牛鹂(Agelaioides badius)则用脚扔掉寄生卵。比紫辉牛鹂小的宿主,在遭遇寄生时则不扔卵,也不弃巢。有些宿主比另一些宿主种类对寄生的牛鹂更具有攻击行为。啸声牛鹂的宿主还能够识别非模拟的寄生雏鸟。我们的结果说明,尽管与牛鹂协同进化的历史不同,大部分牛鹂的宿主已经进化出不同类型的反寄生防御对策。     

新西兰寄生性杜鹃对短波光的视觉敏感性(英文)

不同类群的鸟类对于光线中紫外波长部分的敏感程度存在差异。在一些专性巢寄生鸟类的寄生者 - 宿主体系中,寄生卵所反射出来的紫外光对于宿主区分外源鸟卵与自己的卵具有重要作用。反过来说,对于雌性寄主而言,宿主巢中的卵能够最大程度接近自己的卵是非常有利的。虽然视觉敏感性在大多数杜鹃和牛鹂的宿主中都有描述,这些特征在寄主中却少见报道。视觉敏感性能帮助我们理解巢寄生者与宿主之间潜在的感知共进化过程的相关机制以及更好地了解每个物种相应的视觉感知生态。本研究测定了短波长敏感型(SWS1)视蛋白基因的序列来预测两种新西兰专性巢寄生杜鹃——金鹃(Chalcites [Chrysococcyx] lucidus)和长尾噪鹃(Urodynamis[Eudynamis]taitensis)的紫外光敏感性。结果表明两种杜鹃都具有SWS1视蛋白基因,而其最大敏感度集中在短波长光谱中人类可见的紫光部分,而不是紫外光。未来的研究应该关注在鸟类视觉系统下所测的巢寄生者和宿主卵的相似性以及宿主拒绝寄生卵的行为后果这两个方面,来集中探究巢寄生者与宿主之间的视觉敏感度是否匹配。     

牛鹂的保护与协同进化:潜在的误解和未来的研究方向(英文)

鸟类巢寄生是研究寄生者与宿主之间相互作用及其协同进化的模式系统。然而,近来开展的一些工作却使人们对褐头牛鹂(Molothrus ater)这一世界上研究最多的寄生性繁殖鸟类产生了误解,特别是在到底该鸟对其宿主鸟类是否会产生危害这一认识上。这些潜在的误解包括:褐头牛鹂是一种新出现在北美的寄生鸟类,其种群正在快速增加;新近被牛鹂寄生的宿主没有防御行为,因此牛鹂寄生导致了目前雀形目鸟类的普遍减少,而对牛鹂的控制管理有效增加了濒危宿主鸟类的种群。而关于协同进化方面的误解则包括:牛鹂是典型的"相容性寄生鸟类";牛鹂雏鸟会拱掉巢内宿主卵或雏鸟;牛鹂具有"黑手党"报复行为。这些误解由来已久,已严重影响了我们对牛鹂这一神奇寄生鸟类及其协同进化过程的认识。为此,本文对所有这些误解一一做了说明,并对未来的研究方向进行了展望。     

基于寄生者-宿主相互作用的时空生态特征构建的协同进化框架:巢寄生研究中一个缺失的环节(英文)

协同进化理论的中心思想,包括巢寄生者与其宿主之间共进化关系的理论,认为时间和空间模式可揭示一些关于生态和进化动态方面的重要信息。例如,关于遗传方式和基因流在决定由寄生导致的宿主所受选择的局域模式(如拒绝卵)以及因宿主的选择压力导致的寄生者所受选择模式(如模拟卵)中所起的作用,种群的遗传结构水平为此提供了重要信息。此外,随空间变化的非生物(如气候条件)和生物(动物的表型特征)因素可能还会直接或间接影响宿主和寄生者的种群及其相互作用。通过查阅文献,我们发现大量的证据支持时间及空间上的非生物环境对寄生者和宿主卵的形态及模拟程度有重要影响。而且,有研究表明,随地理和(或)时间而变化的特殊的宿主生活史特征可能会影响新宿主最初被利用的概率以及宿主与寄生者间共进化的方向和速度。本文全面总结了以往研究中关于寄生者和宿主之间相互作用的时空模式。该时空趋势以及拒卵行为的遗传学依据和基因流的显著作用,与协同进化的动态特征相一致。然而,基因流和寄生者宿主丰富度的时空格局变化可能会导致宿主和寄生者频繁产生在形态上与直觉相反的关系(如极少或者没有模拟),这或许说明了适应的局限性。我们列举了未来需要解决的一系列科学问题,认为关于寄生者和宿主的研究在检测协同进化的地理学理论以及其它一些假说中扮演着关键角色。     

白术、微米白术和白术多糖对断奶仔猪生长性能和肠道形态及微生态区系的影响

试验选用96头平均体重14.82 kg左右的杜×长×大断奶仔猪,随机分成4组,每组3栏,每栏8头(公母各半)。对照组饲喂基础日粮,试验1、2、3组分别添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖和1%微米白术。试验期30 d。结果表明:在生长性能方面,与对照组相比,1%微米白术添加组可显著提高日增重(P0.05)、降低饲料增重比和腹泻率,而且效果优于1%80目白术组和0.2%白术多糖组,在肠道形态和肠道微生态区系方面,与对照组相比,日粮添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖、1%微米白术均可不同程度的提高十二指肠和空肠的绒毛高度,加深十二指肠和空肠的隐窝深度,并且增加肠道微生态区系的多样性,其中以1%微米白术添加组的效果最佳。     

Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia

Sissay, M.M., Uggla, A. and Waller, P.J., XXXX. Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, XXXX. A 2-year abattoir survey was carried out to determine the prevalence, abundance and seasonal incidence of gastro-intestinal (GI) nematodes and trematodes (flukes) of sheep and goats in the semi-arid zone of eastern Ethiopia. During May 2003 to April 2005, viscera including liver, lungs and GI tracts were collected from 655 sheep and 632 goats slaughtered at 4 abattoirs located in the towns of Haramaya, Harar, Dire Dawa and Jijiga in eastern Ethiopia. All animals were raised in the farming areas located within the community boundaries for each town. Collected materials were transported within 24 h to the parasitology laboratory of Haramaya University for immediate processing. Thirteen species belonging to 9 genera of GI nematodes (Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus axei, T. colubriformis, T. vitrinus, Nematodirus filicollis, N. spathiger, Oesophagostomum columbianum, O. venulosum, Strongyloides papillosus, Bunostomum trigonocephalum, Trichuris ovis, Cooperia curticei and Chabertia ovina), and 4 species belonging to 3 genera of trematodes (Fasciola hepatica, F. gigantica, Paramphistomum {Calicohoron} microbothrium and Dicrocoelium dendriticum) were recorded in both sheep and goats. All animals in this investigation were infected with multiple species to varying degrees. The mean burdens of adult nematodes were generally moderate in both sheep and goats and showed patterns of seasonal abundance that corresponded with the bi-modal annual rainfall pattern, with highest burdens around the middle of the rainy season. In both sheep and goats there were significant differences in the mean worm burdens and abundance of the different nematode species between the four geographic locations, with worm burdens in the Haramaya and Harar areas greater than those observed in the Dire Dawa and Jijiga locations. Similar seasonal variations were also observed in the prevalence of flukes. But there were no significant differences in the prevalence of each fluke species between the four locations. Overall, the results showed that Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Nematodirus, Oesophagostomum, Fasciola and Paramphistomum species were the most abundant helminth parasites of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia.     

Phase I evaluation of CCNU (lomustine) in tumor-bearing cats

1-(2-Chloroethyl)3-cyclohexyl-1-nitrosourea (CCNU) is an alkylating agent in the nitrosourea subclass. A prospective evaluation of CCNU was done to determine the maximally tolerated dosage of CCNU in tumor-bearing cats. Response data were obtained when available. Twenty-five cats were treated with CCNU at a dosage of 50-60 mg/m3 body surface area. Complete hematologic data were available for 13 cats. Neutropenia was the acute dose-limiting toxicity. The median neutrophil count at the nadir was 1,000 cells/microL (mean, 2,433 cells/microL; range, 0-9,694 cells/microL). The time of neutrophil nadir was variable, occurring 7-28 days after treatment, and counts sometimes did not return to normal for up to 14 days after the nadir. Based on these findings, a 6-week dosing interval and weekly hematologic monitoring after the 1st treatment with CCNU are recommended. The nadir of the platelet count may occur 14-21 days after treatment. The median platelet count at the nadir was 43,500 cells/microL. No gastrointestinal, renal, or hepatic toxicities were observed after a single CCNU treatment, and additional studies to evaluate the potential for cumulative toxicity should be performed. Five cats with lymphoma and 1 cat with mast cell tumor had measurable responses to CCNU. Phase II studies to evaluate antitumor activity should be completed with a dosing regimen of 50-60 mg/m3 every 6 weeks.     

Y‐chromosomal variation of local goat breeds of Turkey close to the domestication centre

Genetic variations in chromosome Y are enabling researchers to identify paternal lineages, which are informative for introgressions and migrations. In this study, the male‐specific region markers, sex‐determining region‐Y (SRY), amelogenin (AMELY) and zinc finger (ZFY) were analysed in seven Turkish native goat breeds, Angora, Kilis, Hair, Honaml?, Norduz, Gürcü and Abaza. A SNP in the ZFY gene defined a new haplotype Y2C. All domestic haplogroups originate from Capra aegagrus, while the finding of Y1A, Y1B, Y2A and Y2C in 32, 4, 126 and 2 Turkish domestic goats, respectively, appears to indicate a predomestic origin of the major haplotypes. The occurrence of four haplotypes in the Hair goat and, in contrast, a frequency of 96% of Y1A in the Kilis breed illustrate that Y‐chromosomal variants have a more breed‐dependent distribution than mitochondrial or autosomal DNA. This probably reflects male founder effects, but a role in adaptation cannot be excluded.     

Furosemide continuous rate infusion in the horse: evaluation of enhanced efficacy and reduced side effects

Continuous rate infusion (CRI) of furosemide in humans is considered superior to intermittent administration (IA). This study examined whether furosemide CRI, compared with IA, would increase diuretic efficacy with decreased fluid and electrolyte fluctuations and activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) in the horse. Five mares were used in a crossover-design study. During a 24-hour period, each horse received a total of 3 mg/kg furosemide by either CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h preceded by a loading dose of 0.12 mg/kg IV) or IA (1 mg/kg IV q8h). There was not a statistically significant difference in urine volume over 24 hours between methods; however, urine volume was significantly greater after CRI compared with IA during the first 8 hours ([median 25th percentile, 75th percentile]: 9.6 L [8.9, 14.4] for CRI versus 5.9 L [5.3, 6.0] for IA). CRI produced a more uniform urine flow, decreased fluctuations in plasma volume, and suppressed renal concentrating ability throughout the infusion period. Potassium, Ca, and Cl excretion was greater during CRI than IA (1,133 mmol [1.110, 1,229] versus 764 mmol [709, 904], 102.7 mmol [96.0, 117.2] versus 73.3 mmol [65.0, 73.5], and 1,776 mmol [1,657, 2.378] versus 1,596 mmol [1,457, 1,767], respectively). Elimination half-lives of furosemide were 1.35 and 0.47 hours for CRI and IA, respectively. The area under the excretion rate curve was 1,285.7 and 184.2 mL x mg/mL for CRI and IA, respectively. Furosemide CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h) for 8 hours, preceded by a loading dose (0.12 mg/kg), is recommended when profound diuresis is needed acutely in horses.     

The Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Nematodes of Dairy Cattle in Central Kenya

The epidemiology of H. placei and of other gastrointestinal nematodes in yearling dairy cattle was examined on two farms in Kiambu District, central Kenya during each of 13 one-month periods from April 1993 to April 1994. On each farm, 32 newly weaned dairy calves were given a single dose of albendazole and then placed on experimental pastures. Twelve of the animals were designated for bi-monthly slaughter (n = 2) and analysis of worm population characteristics and 20 were designated for blood and faecal collection and for weighing. Two parasite-free tracer calves were grazed alongside the weaner calves each month throughout the study period and were also slaughtered for analysis of worm populations. Faecal egg counts, haematological and serum pepsinogen determinations, herbage larval counts, and animal live weight changes were recorded monthly. The study revealed that Haemonchus placei, Trichostrongylus axei, Cooperia spp. and Oesophagostomum radiatum were responsible for parasitic gastroenteritis and that H. placei was the predominant nematode present in the young cattle on both farms. Faecal egg counts from resident cattle and necropsy worm counts revealed that pasture larval levels were directly related to the amount of rainfall. The total worm burdens in the animals were highest during the rainy season (March–June and October–December) and lowest during the dry seasons (July–September and January–February). The very low recovery of immature larvae of H. placei from the tracer calves indicated that arrested development is not a feature of the life cycle of this parasite in central Kenya. The maintenance of the parasite population depended on continuous cycling of infection between the host and the pasture. The agroclimatic conditions of the study area were such that, in general, favourable weather conditions for the development and survival of the free-living stages of gastrointestinal nematodes existed all year round.     

Diversity of Ectoparasites in Sheep Flocks in Sa~o Paulo,Brazil

The occurrence of ectoparasites in sheep flocks is frequently reported but seldom quantified. Sheep production used to be a predominantly family activity in the state of Sa~o Paulo (Brazil), but it began to become a commercial activity in the past decade. Thus, information about the ectoparasites existing in sheep flocks has become necessary. The present data were obtained by means of questionnaires sent to all sheep breeders belonging to the `Associaça~o Paulista de Criadores de Ovinos' (ASPACO; Sa~o Paulo State Association of Sheep Breeders). Response reliability was tested by means of random visits paid to 10.6% of the respondents. Most of the properties (89.5%) reported the presence of one or more ectoparasites. Screw-worm (Cochliomyia hominivorax) was the most frequent ectoparasite (72.5%), followed by bot fly larvae (Dermatobia hominis, 45.0%), ticks (Amblyomma cajennense) and Boophilus microplus, 31.3%) and finally lice (Damalinia ovis, 13.8%). Combined infestations also occurred, the most common one being screw-worm with bot fly larvae (36.0%) followed by bot fly larvae with ticks (13.9%), screw-worm with ticks (9.3%), bot fly larvae with lice (6.9%), and ticks with lice (5.0%). The most common triple combination was screw-worm, bot fly larvae and ticks (12.8%). Breeds raised for meat or wool were attacked by bot fly larvae and ticks more often than other breeds. Lice were only absent from animals of indigenous breeds. The relationships among these ectoparasites are discussed in terms of sheep breeds, flock size, seasonality and the ectoparasitic combinations on the host.     

Feline intracranial neoplasia: retrospective review of 160 cases (1985-2001)

The purpose of this study was to determine the frequency of different tumor types within a large cohort of cats with intracranial neoplasia and to attempt to correlate signalment, tumor size and location, and survival time for each tumor. Medical records of 160 cats with confirmed intracranial neoplasia evaluated between 1985 and 2001 were reviewed. Parameters evaluated included age, sex, breed, FeLV/FIV status, clinical signs, duration of signs, number of tumors, tumor location(s), imaging results, treatment, survival times, and histopathologic diagnosis. Most of the cats were older (11.3 +/- 3.8 years). Primary tumors accounted for 70.6% of cases. Metastasis and direct extension of secondary tumors accounted for only 5.6 and 3.8% of cases, respectively. Twelve cats (7.5%) had 2 or more discrete tumors of the same type, whereas 16 cats (10.0%) had 2 different types of intracranial tumors. The most common tumor types were meningioma (n = 93, 58.1%), lymphoma (n = 23, 14.4%), pituitary tumors (n = 14, 8.8%), and gliomas (n = 12, 7.5%). The most common neurological signs were altered consciousness (n = 42, 26.2%), circling (n = 36, 22.5%), and seizures (n = 36, 22.5%). Cats without specific neurological signs were common (n = 34, 21.2%). The tumor was considered an incidental finding in 30 (18.8%) cats. In addition to expected relationships (eg, meninges and meningioma, pituitary and pituitary tumors), we found that lesion location was predictive of tumor type with diffuse cerebral or brainstem involvement predictive of lymphoma and third ventricle involvement predictive of meningioma.     

A brief history of the prevention of infectious diseases by immunisations

Infectious diseases have always been a terrible scourge for humans. The appearance of these plagues, as they were called without distinction, was generally connected to various conditions: asters, climatic changes or religious reasons. The concept of contagious, and then infectious, diseases came slowly. Variolation, i.e. transmission of ‘virulent’ matter to induce a natural disease and the immunity against it, was brought from Constantinople to England by Lady Montague, in 1721. This ‘variolation’ technique was also often performed in veterinary medicine against diseases like sheep-pox or pleuropneumonia. As ‘vaccination’ is the term generally accepted for ‘immunisation’, variolation can be the word designating such a technique. The second period of the history of immunisation began, in 1880, with the studies of Pasteur and his collaborators. A great number of bacterial vaccines were developed: dead, live but attenuated or only parts of pathogens. The viruses were produced in animals, then in eggs and at last, in tissue cultures. Second generation vaccines appeared with genetic engineering: recombinant vaccines, vector vaccines, nucleic acids vaccines, and markers vaccines, among others. These novel technologies can permit the development of new ones and improve the quality of the vaccines already existing.