作物灰色育种理论在杂交黑麦草新品系筛选中的应用

根据作物灰色育种学的理论和方法,对黑麦草(Lolium spp.)杂交F4代8个品系的单株产量、株高、分蘖数、有效分蘖率、茎粗、叶宽、叶长、茎叶比、生育期、初花期净光合作用速率进行目标性状灰色关联分析,并在此基础上,对黑麦草杂交F4代8个品系进行灰色多维综合评估。结果表明:黑麦草单株鲜重与分蘖数(r=0.7968)、茎粗(r=0.7472)、叶长(r=0.7116)关联度最高;茎叶比与有效分蘖率(r=0.7631)、株高(r=0.7468)关联度较高;而初花期净光合作用速率与叶宽(r=0.8431)和生育期(r=0.8264)关联最为密切。可根据育种目标,对与目标性状关联度较高的性状进行针对性选择。F₄_5(卓越×百盛)、F₄_6(多福×卓越)、F₄_8(百盛×多福)3个杂交新品系综合性状最好,综合评估关联度分别为0.8582,0.7527和0.7340。     

不同栽培方式下C4牧草在沿海滩涂的生产性能评价

本研究利用杂交狼尾草、高丹草和墨西哥玉米3种不同类型的C₄牧草在江苏沿海滩涂进行种植,采取覆膜、起垄、覆膜+起垄等3种栽培方式,从分蘖期到开花期等不同生育期分4次进行取样,分别测定株高、单株叶面积等形态指标,及单株干重和干物质含量等产量性状,并分别测定茎、叶及全株饲用品质(可溶性碳水化合物,粗蛋白,中性洗涤纤维、酸性洗涤纤维、干物质体外消化率)。结果表明,覆膜、起垄、覆膜+起垄3种栽培方式均能有效增加牧草产量、改善牧草饲用品质,其中以覆膜+起垄方式改善效果最显著;杂交狼尾草和高丹草在9月3日收割能获得最优的产量和品质,墨西哥玉米则在9月24日收获饲用品质最好、产量最高。墨西哥玉米和高丹草饲草中可溶性碳水化合物(WSC)含量显著高于杂交狼尾草;高丹草和墨西哥玉米植株体内WSC主要集中于茎秆,且两者茎中WSC含量明显高于叶中的含量,而杂交狼尾草茎中的WSC含量稍高于叶片。本研究的结果明确了不同栽培方式下3种C₄牧草生产性能的差异,为加快滩涂种草开发提供理论依据。     

不同栽培方式下光敏型高丹草主要农艺性状与产草量相关性的因子分析

为了探讨光敏型高丹草种植中影响产草量的主要农艺性状,在陇东黄土高原旱作区以免耕露地穴播、翻耕露地穴播、翻耕覆膜穴播3种方式种植光敏型高丹草(包括海牛、大卡、BJM三个品种),并对8个主要农艺性状与产草量之间的相关性进行因子分析。结果表明:不同栽培方式下影响产草量(X9)的因子不同,产草量(X9)在免耕露地穴播时与株高(X1)、节数(X3)、叶片数(X4)和分蘖数(X8)呈正相关;翻耕露地穴播时与茎粗(X2)、单株鲜重(X5)和单株茎重(X7)呈正相关,与株高(X1)和节数(X3)呈负相关;翻耕覆膜穴播时与叶片数(X4)和分蘖数(X8)呈正相关,但与株高(X1)的相关性不明确;同时,高产高丹草的主要特征包括茎粗、单株产量高、分蘖少等,BJM较其他两品种更符合该特征。综上所述,在陇东黄土高原旱作区种植光敏型高丹草时,以BJM与翻耕覆膜穴播结合为最佳栽培方式,可获得较高的产草量。     

菘蓝主要农艺性状相关性及主成分分析

分析24个不同生态类型菘蓝的13个农艺性状,探索菘蓝种质优选及育种材料的选择标准。将24个不同生态类型菘蓝种子以随机排列的方式条播于和政药用植物园,采收期前进行农艺性状田间调查。结果发现,24个不同生态类型菘蓝的13个农艺性状均存在较大的变异,其中芦头至第1侧根距离变异最大(变异系数64.7%),折干率变异最小(变异系数14.29%);相关性分析表明,单根鲜重与株幅、叶宽、叶片数、单株叶片总鲜重等具有显著正相关(r=0.519,r=0.576,r=0.557,r=0.738);主根长与叶宽呈显著正相关(r=0.447),与叶长宽比成显著负相关(r=0.511);主根粗与株幅、叶长、叶宽、单株叶片总鲜重具有显著正相关(r=0.682,r=0.483,r=0.460,r=0.612);侧根数与叶片数、单株叶片总鲜重具有显著正相关(r=0.603,r=0.650)。在主成分分析中,株高、株幅、叶长、叶片数、单株叶片总鲜重、单根鲜重、主根长、主根粗、侧根数等9个信息负荷量较大,累计贡献率为84.1%。说明在进行菘蓝种质优选及新品种选育时,应首选株幅较大、叶长宽比较小、单株叶片数较多、单根鲜重较大和侧根高较大的种质为宜。     

秣食豆种质资源的灰色关联度分析与综合评价

为了解不同秣食豆种质资源的生产特性，试验对收集的20份(种质1～20)秣食豆种质资源进行农艺性状(单株鲜重、单株干重、茎鲜重、叶鲜重、荚鲜重、株高、分枝数、茎粗、鲜干比、叶茎比)和营养品质(粗蛋白、中性洗涤纤维、酸性洗涤纤维)测定，并采用灰色关联度分析法对测定指标进行综合评价。结果表明：种质10(ZDD01937号秣食豆)的单株鲜重最大，种质2(ZDD07617号查干花秣食豆)和种质10的单株干重最大，种质12(ZDD18057号茶秣食豆)的株高最高，种质1(ZDD01936号秣食豆)的分枝数最多，种质20(东农秣食豆)的茎粗最粗，种质6(ZDD07601号大赉茶秣食豆)的鲜干比最大，种质3(ZDD07628号靖宇茶秣食豆)的叶茎比最高，种质7(ZDD07616号大安黑秣食豆)的粗蛋白含量最高及中性洗涤纤维含量最低，种质5(ZDD18062号秣食豆)的酸性洗涤纤维含量最低及相对饲喂价值最高。分枝数分别与单株鲜重、单株干重、茎鲜重及叶鲜重呈显著或极显著正相关(P<0.05或P<0.01),茎粗分别与单株鲜重、单株干重、茎鲜重及荚鲜重呈极显著正相关(P<0.01)。加权关...     

高丹草+箭筈豌豆混合饲粮对绵羊养分表观消化率和气体代谢的影响

本研究采用单因素完全随机设计,将12只体重相近、体况良好、6月龄的杂交公羊,随机分为两个处理,每个处理6只羊,分别饲喂两种饲粮[单一高丹草(Sorghum bicolor×S.sudanense)饲粮和高丹草与箭筈豌豆(Vicia sativa)混合饲粮],分析了以高丹草饲粮为基础添加一定比例箭筈豌豆(高丹草∶箭筈豌豆=2∶1)对牧草表观消化率以及家畜产气的影响。结果表明:以高丹草+箭筈豌豆饲喂羔羊时干物质采食量、中性洗涤纤维和粗蛋白消化率显著高于高丹草组(P<0.05);干物质消化率和酸性洗涤纤维消化率无明显差异(P>0.05)。说明高丹草与箭筈豌豆组合改善饲粮的适口性,提高了饲草的表观消化率。     

宁夏引黄灌区麦后复种高丹草、饲用高粱、青贮玉米营养及饲用价值评定

试验旨在筛选适合引黄灌区麦后复种饲用高粱、高丹草和青贮玉米品种,引进13个优质品种采用随机区组试验设计。结果显示:饲用高粱鲜草产量高于高丹草和青贮玉米品种,高丹草3901在鲜草产量、株高、茎粗、叶片数、叶长、叶面积显著高于CFSH30 (P0.05)。青贮玉米叶面积最大,与高丹草中三个品种相比差异显著(P0.05)。复种饲用高粱、高丹草、青贮玉米品种各农艺性状相关性分析表明,鲜草产量与茎粗、株高显著正相关,茎粗与叶片数、叶宽、叶面积极显著正相关。复种牧草营养成分测定、饲用价值评定结果表明,复种青贮玉米品种饲用价值较好,评定为特级,高丹草、饲用高粱品种等级评定均在3级以上。综合提示,饲用高粱3701、高丹草3901和饲用玉米屯玉168优势相对突出,可作为宁夏引黄灌区麦后复种生产优质饲草的主推品种。     

湖南西部地区饲用甜高粱的生产性能比较

为筛选出适合在湖南西部地区推广应用的饲用甜高粱品种,利用灰色关联度法对2020和2021年7个高粱品种的9个农艺性状指标进行综合评价。结果表明：不同品种间相比以阿尔托902的株高、茎粗、叶片数、叶长、叶宽、叶面积、单株鲜重、鲜草和干草产量均最高;不同年份间相比以2020年各高粱品种的平均株高、叶长、叶宽、叶面积、单株鲜重、鲜草和干草产量均较高,2021年各高粱品种的平均茎粗和叶片数均较高;年份×品种互作效应间相比以2020年阿尔托902的株高、叶片数、叶长、叶宽、叶面积、单株鲜重、鲜草和干草产量均最高,2021年阿尔托902的茎粗最高。综合评价结果显示,阿尔托902表现最优,生产性能最好,适宜在湖南西部地区推广应用。     

光敏型高丹草复种穴播高效栽培模式研究

为了探讨光敏型高丹草夏播复种的高效栽培模式,在陇东旱塬麦茬后用免耕露地、翻耕露地和翻耕覆膜3种穴播方式复种了海牛、BJM和大卡(褐色中脉、BMR)3个光敏型高丹草品种,观察比较了各品种的物候期和农艺性状,测定分析了不同品种和穴播方式下刈割1茬和2茬的草产量。结果表明,在刈割1茬(早霜前1周刈割)条件下,各品种间在株高、茎粗、节间数、叶片数、单株鲜重、单株叶重、单株茎重和分蘖数性状上差异极显著(P<0.01),穴播方式对各品种株高和节间数影响显著(P<0.05),对叶片数、单株鲜重、单株叶重、单株茎重和分蘖数影响极显著(P<0.01),品种和穴播方式互作仅对单株叶重影响显著(P<0.05)。以65%含水量标准鲜草产量为指标,3个品种刈割1茬的产量均高于刈割2茬之和的产量,前者平均产草量是后者的3.21倍;品种在刈割2茬第1次、第2次和两次之和的产量之间均差异极显著(P<0.01),而在刈割1茬的产量间差异显著(P<0.05);穴播方式间刈割1茬、刈割2茬第1次和两次之和的产量均差异极显著(P<0.01);品种和穴播互作对刈割1茬、刈割2茬第1次和2次之和的产量影响极显著(P<0.01)。在刈割1茬时,3个品种的标准鲜草产量表现为翻耕覆膜比免耕露地平均增产62.21%、比翻耕露地增产36.45%、翻耕露地比免耕露地增产21.08%。在本试验条件下,在陇东旱塬地区麦茬后夏播复种高丹草以翻耕覆膜穴播、刈割1茬(早霜前1周刈割)和BJM 品种相组合的生产模式为最优;但种植者如选择多次刈割,则以海牛品种结合翻耕覆膜穴播的种植模式为佳。     

高丹草农艺性状与产量的相关和通径分析

[目的] 明确对高丹草产量影响较大的关键农艺性状,挖掘其高产潜力,为品种选育及推广应用提供依据。[方法] 以12份高丹草材料为研究对象,对高丹草各性状进行测量,利用随机区组试验对高丹草主要农艺性状与单株干重进行相关性、主成分和通径分析。[结果] 各农艺性状的变异系数范围为11.61%~54.67%,表明各供试材料主要农艺性状存在丰富变异;各性状与单株干重相关性为株高>茎粗>叶片数>叶长>叶宽,单株干重与株高相关系数最大（0.746）,与叶宽的相关系数最小（0.349）;主成分分析共获得3个主成分,分别是株高因子、分蘖因子和叶宽因子,主成分分析中前3个主成分贡献率分别为45.855%、12.924%、11.594%,累计贡献率高达70.373%,主成分1中各性状特征向量值均为正值,单株干重、株高、茎粗、叶片数和叶长的载荷量较高,表明植株高大、主茎粗、叶片数多且植株叶片较长时,高丹草产量较高;通径分析中对植株产量直接影响的大小为株高（0.444）>茎粗（0.258）>叶片数（0.201）>叶宽（0.136）。[结论] 株高和茎粗是直接影响高丹草单株产量的重要性状。     

白术、微米白术和白术多糖对断奶仔猪生长性能和肠道形态及微生态区系的影响

试验选用96头平均体重14.82 kg左右的杜×长×大断奶仔猪,随机分成4组,每组3栏,每栏8头(公母各半)。对照组饲喂基础日粮,试验1、2、3组分别添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖和1%微米白术。试验期30 d。结果表明:在生长性能方面,与对照组相比,1%微米白术添加组可显著提高日增重(P0.05)、降低饲料增重比和腹泻率,而且效果优于1%80目白术组和0.2%白术多糖组,在肠道形态和肠道微生态区系方面,与对照组相比,日粮添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖、1%微米白术均可不同程度的提高十二指肠和空肠的绒毛高度,加深十二指肠和空肠的隐窝深度,并且增加肠道微生态区系的多样性,其中以1%微米白术添加组的效果最佳。     

Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia

Sissay, M.M., Uggla, A. and Waller, P.J., XXXX. Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, XXXX. A 2-year abattoir survey was carried out to determine the prevalence, abundance and seasonal incidence of gastro-intestinal (GI) nematodes and trematodes (flukes) of sheep and goats in the semi-arid zone of eastern Ethiopia. During May 2003 to April 2005, viscera including liver, lungs and GI tracts were collected from 655 sheep and 632 goats slaughtered at 4 abattoirs located in the towns of Haramaya, Harar, Dire Dawa and Jijiga in eastern Ethiopia. All animals were raised in the farming areas located within the community boundaries for each town. Collected materials were transported within 24 h to the parasitology laboratory of Haramaya University for immediate processing. Thirteen species belonging to 9 genera of GI nematodes (Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus axei, T. colubriformis, T. vitrinus, Nematodirus filicollis, N. spathiger, Oesophagostomum columbianum, O. venulosum, Strongyloides papillosus, Bunostomum trigonocephalum, Trichuris ovis, Cooperia curticei and Chabertia ovina), and 4 species belonging to 3 genera of trematodes (Fasciola hepatica, F. gigantica, Paramphistomum {Calicohoron} microbothrium and Dicrocoelium dendriticum) were recorded in both sheep and goats. All animals in this investigation were infected with multiple species to varying degrees. The mean burdens of adult nematodes were generally moderate in both sheep and goats and showed patterns of seasonal abundance that corresponded with the bi-modal annual rainfall pattern, with highest burdens around the middle of the rainy season. In both sheep and goats there were significant differences in the mean worm burdens and abundance of the different nematode species between the four geographic locations, with worm burdens in the Haramaya and Harar areas greater than those observed in the Dire Dawa and Jijiga locations. Similar seasonal variations were also observed in the prevalence of flukes. But there were no significant differences in the prevalence of each fluke species between the four locations. Overall, the results showed that Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Nematodirus, Oesophagostomum, Fasciola and Paramphistomum species were the most abundant helminth parasites of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia.     

Phase I evaluation of CCNU (lomustine) in tumor-bearing cats

1-(2-Chloroethyl)3-cyclohexyl-1-nitrosourea (CCNU) is an alkylating agent in the nitrosourea subclass. A prospective evaluation of CCNU was done to determine the maximally tolerated dosage of CCNU in tumor-bearing cats. Response data were obtained when available. Twenty-five cats were treated with CCNU at a dosage of 50-60 mg/m3 body surface area. Complete hematologic data were available for 13 cats. Neutropenia was the acute dose-limiting toxicity. The median neutrophil count at the nadir was 1,000 cells/microL (mean, 2,433 cells/microL; range, 0-9,694 cells/microL). The time of neutrophil nadir was variable, occurring 7-28 days after treatment, and counts sometimes did not return to normal for up to 14 days after the nadir. Based on these findings, a 6-week dosing interval and weekly hematologic monitoring after the 1st treatment with CCNU are recommended. The nadir of the platelet count may occur 14-21 days after treatment. The median platelet count at the nadir was 43,500 cells/microL. No gastrointestinal, renal, or hepatic toxicities were observed after a single CCNU treatment, and additional studies to evaluate the potential for cumulative toxicity should be performed. Five cats with lymphoma and 1 cat with mast cell tumor had measurable responses to CCNU. Phase II studies to evaluate antitumor activity should be completed with a dosing regimen of 50-60 mg/m3 every 6 weeks.     

Y‐chromosomal variation of local goat breeds of Turkey close to the domestication centre

Genetic variations in chromosome Y are enabling researchers to identify paternal lineages, which are informative for introgressions and migrations. In this study, the male‐specific region markers, sex‐determining region‐Y (SRY), amelogenin (AMELY) and zinc finger (ZFY) were analysed in seven Turkish native goat breeds, Angora, Kilis, Hair, Honaml?, Norduz, Gürcü and Abaza. A SNP in the ZFY gene defined a new haplotype Y2C. All domestic haplogroups originate from Capra aegagrus, while the finding of Y1A, Y1B, Y2A and Y2C in 32, 4, 126 and 2 Turkish domestic goats, respectively, appears to indicate a predomestic origin of the major haplotypes. The occurrence of four haplotypes in the Hair goat and, in contrast, a frequency of 96% of Y1A in the Kilis breed illustrate that Y‐chromosomal variants have a more breed‐dependent distribution than mitochondrial or autosomal DNA. This probably reflects male founder effects, but a role in adaptation cannot be excluded.     

Furosemide continuous rate infusion in the horse: evaluation of enhanced efficacy and reduced side effects

Continuous rate infusion (CRI) of furosemide in humans is considered superior to intermittent administration (IA). This study examined whether furosemide CRI, compared with IA, would increase diuretic efficacy with decreased fluid and electrolyte fluctuations and activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) in the horse. Five mares were used in a crossover-design study. During a 24-hour period, each horse received a total of 3 mg/kg furosemide by either CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h preceded by a loading dose of 0.12 mg/kg IV) or IA (1 mg/kg IV q8h). There was not a statistically significant difference in urine volume over 24 hours between methods; however, urine volume was significantly greater after CRI compared with IA during the first 8 hours ([median 25th percentile, 75th percentile]: 9.6 L [8.9, 14.4] for CRI versus 5.9 L [5.3, 6.0] for IA). CRI produced a more uniform urine flow, decreased fluctuations in plasma volume, and suppressed renal concentrating ability throughout the infusion period. Potassium, Ca, and Cl excretion was greater during CRI than IA (1,133 mmol [1.110, 1,229] versus 764 mmol [709, 904], 102.7 mmol [96.0, 117.2] versus 73.3 mmol [65.0, 73.5], and 1,776 mmol [1,657, 2.378] versus 1,596 mmol [1,457, 1,767], respectively). Elimination half-lives of furosemide were 1.35 and 0.47 hours for CRI and IA, respectively. The area under the excretion rate curve was 1,285.7 and 184.2 mL x mg/mL for CRI and IA, respectively. Furosemide CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h) for 8 hours, preceded by a loading dose (0.12 mg/kg), is recommended when profound diuresis is needed acutely in horses.     

The Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Nematodes of Dairy Cattle in Central Kenya

The epidemiology of H. placei and of other gastrointestinal nematodes in yearling dairy cattle was examined on two farms in Kiambu District, central Kenya during each of 13 one-month periods from April 1993 to April 1994. On each farm, 32 newly weaned dairy calves were given a single dose of albendazole and then placed on experimental pastures. Twelve of the animals were designated for bi-monthly slaughter (n = 2) and analysis of worm population characteristics and 20 were designated for blood and faecal collection and for weighing. Two parasite-free tracer calves were grazed alongside the weaner calves each month throughout the study period and were also slaughtered for analysis of worm populations. Faecal egg counts, haematological and serum pepsinogen determinations, herbage larval counts, and animal live weight changes were recorded monthly. The study revealed that Haemonchus placei, Trichostrongylus axei, Cooperia spp. and Oesophagostomum radiatum were responsible for parasitic gastroenteritis and that H. placei was the predominant nematode present in the young cattle on both farms. Faecal egg counts from resident cattle and necropsy worm counts revealed that pasture larval levels were directly related to the amount of rainfall. The total worm burdens in the animals were highest during the rainy season (March–June and October–December) and lowest during the dry seasons (July–September and January–February). The very low recovery of immature larvae of H. placei from the tracer calves indicated that arrested development is not a feature of the life cycle of this parasite in central Kenya. The maintenance of the parasite population depended on continuous cycling of infection between the host and the pasture. The agroclimatic conditions of the study area were such that, in general, favourable weather conditions for the development and survival of the free-living stages of gastrointestinal nematodes existed all year round.     

Diversity of Ectoparasites in Sheep Flocks in Sa~o Paulo,Brazil

The occurrence of ectoparasites in sheep flocks is frequently reported but seldom quantified. Sheep production used to be a predominantly family activity in the state of Sa~o Paulo (Brazil), but it began to become a commercial activity in the past decade. Thus, information about the ectoparasites existing in sheep flocks has become necessary. The present data were obtained by means of questionnaires sent to all sheep breeders belonging to the `Associaça~o Paulista de Criadores de Ovinos' (ASPACO; Sa~o Paulo State Association of Sheep Breeders). Response reliability was tested by means of random visits paid to 10.6% of the respondents. Most of the properties (89.5%) reported the presence of one or more ectoparasites. Screw-worm (Cochliomyia hominivorax) was the most frequent ectoparasite (72.5%), followed by bot fly larvae (Dermatobia hominis, 45.0%), ticks (Amblyomma cajennense) and Boophilus microplus, 31.3%) and finally lice (Damalinia ovis, 13.8%). Combined infestations also occurred, the most common one being screw-worm with bot fly larvae (36.0%) followed by bot fly larvae with ticks (13.9%), screw-worm with ticks (9.3%), bot fly larvae with lice (6.9%), and ticks with lice (5.0%). The most common triple combination was screw-worm, bot fly larvae and ticks (12.8%). Breeds raised for meat or wool were attacked by bot fly larvae and ticks more often than other breeds. Lice were only absent from animals of indigenous breeds. The relationships among these ectoparasites are discussed in terms of sheep breeds, flock size, seasonality and the ectoparasitic combinations on the host.     

Feline intracranial neoplasia: retrospective review of 160 cases (1985-2001)

The purpose of this study was to determine the frequency of different tumor types within a large cohort of cats with intracranial neoplasia and to attempt to correlate signalment, tumor size and location, and survival time for each tumor. Medical records of 160 cats with confirmed intracranial neoplasia evaluated between 1985 and 2001 were reviewed. Parameters evaluated included age, sex, breed, FeLV/FIV status, clinical signs, duration of signs, number of tumors, tumor location(s), imaging results, treatment, survival times, and histopathologic diagnosis. Most of the cats were older (11.3 +/- 3.8 years). Primary tumors accounted for 70.6% of cases. Metastasis and direct extension of secondary tumors accounted for only 5.6 and 3.8% of cases, respectively. Twelve cats (7.5%) had 2 or more discrete tumors of the same type, whereas 16 cats (10.0%) had 2 different types of intracranial tumors. The most common tumor types were meningioma (n = 93, 58.1%), lymphoma (n = 23, 14.4%), pituitary tumors (n = 14, 8.8%), and gliomas (n = 12, 7.5%). The most common neurological signs were altered consciousness (n = 42, 26.2%), circling (n = 36, 22.5%), and seizures (n = 36, 22.5%). Cats without specific neurological signs were common (n = 34, 21.2%). The tumor was considered an incidental finding in 30 (18.8%) cats. In addition to expected relationships (eg, meninges and meningioma, pituitary and pituitary tumors), we found that lesion location was predictive of tumor type with diffuse cerebral or brainstem involvement predictive of lymphoma and third ventricle involvement predictive of meningioma.     

A brief history of the prevention of infectious diseases by immunisations

Infectious diseases have always been a terrible scourge for humans. The appearance of these plagues, as they were called without distinction, was generally connected to various conditions: asters, climatic changes or religious reasons. The concept of contagious, and then infectious, diseases came slowly. Variolation, i.e. transmission of ‘virulent’ matter to induce a natural disease and the immunity against it, was brought from Constantinople to England by Lady Montague, in 1721. This ‘variolation’ technique was also often performed in veterinary medicine against diseases like sheep-pox or pleuropneumonia. As ‘vaccination’ is the term generally accepted for ‘immunisation’, variolation can be the word designating such a technique. The second period of the history of immunisation began, in 1880, with the studies of Pasteur and his collaborators. A great number of bacterial vaccines were developed: dead, live but attenuated or only parts of pathogens. The viruses were produced in animals, then in eggs and at last, in tissue cultures. Second generation vaccines appeared with genetic engineering: recombinant vaccines, vector vaccines, nucleic acids vaccines, and markers vaccines, among others. These novel technologies can permit the development of new ones and improve the quality of the vaccines already existing.