Zoo and wildlife medical education: a European perspective

Europe has a long and distinguished history in veterinary science and education, and it was here that the first professional investigations of pathological conditions in zoo animals took place. However, despite an increasing number of veterinarians working with wildlife, education in zoological and wildlife medicine has only recently become part of formal veterinary training at the undergraduate level. Consequently, current educational opportunities in zoological and wildlife medicine vary widely throughout Europe, both in availability and in composition. The need to establish agreed standards in education across Europe and to foster the mobility of students and teaching staff are reflected by international agreements such as the Bologna Treaty and the ERASMUS-SOCRATES program. Europe is also home to a number of voluntary professional organizations, such as the European Wildlife Disease Association and the European Association of Zoo and Wildlife Veterinarians, that actively promote the inclusion of zoological and wildlife medicine in veterinary education. Zoo and wildlife medicine is currently a veterinary specialization in Europe, but educational opportunities are likely to increase in availability in the future.     

Working within the law: guidelines for veterinary surgeons and wildlife rehabilitators on the rehabilitation of wild mammals

In recent years there has been a considerable increase in the numbers of both veterinary surgeons and wildlife rehabilitators involved in the care and rescue of wildlife. Several publications are available offering practical advice on what to do, but many of the people working in this field are unclear as to which laws apply to wildlife rehabilitation. This paper provides a summary of the legal position as it relates to the rehabilitation of wild mammals in Britain.     

Zoological medicine and public health

Public-health issues regarding zoological collections and free-ranging wildlife have historically been linked to the risk of transmission of zoonotic diseases and accidents relating to bites or injection of venom or toxins by venomous animals. It is only recently that major consideration has been given worldwide to the role of the veterinary profession in contributing to investigating zoonotic diseases in free-ranging wildlife and integrating the concept of public health into the management activities of game preserves and wildlife parks. At the veterinary undergraduate level, courses in basic epidemiology, which should include outbreak investigation and disease surveillance, but also in population medicine, in infectious and parasitic diseases (especially new and emerging or re-emerging zoonoses), and in ecology should be part of the core curriculum. Foreign diseases, especially dealing with zoonotic diseases that are major threats because of possible agro-terrorism or spread of zoonoses, need to be taught in veterinary college curricula. Furthermore, knowledge of the principles of ecology and ecosystems should be acquired either during pre-veterinary studies or, at least, at the beginning of the veterinary curriculum. At the post-graduate level, master's degrees in preventive veterinary medicine, ecology and environmental health, or public health with an emphasis on infectious diseases should be offered to veterinarians seeking job opportunities in public health and wildlife management.     

The future of veterinary parasitology: a time for change?

The future of veterinary parasitology is discussed at a time when R&D funding from the pharmaceutical industry is declining, yet the opportunities for veterinary parasitologists to diversify their activities has never been greater. Emerging and re-emerging areas requiring input from veterinary parasitologists include: veterinary public health; conservation and wildlife diseases; emerging and exotic infectious diseases; surveillance strategies; economic effects of parasitic diseases; aquaculture; molecular epidemiology; dietary and biological control of parasitic diseases; animal welfare; organic agricultural systems; novel vaccination strategies; drug target characterisation and rational drug design. Without change, the survival of veterinary parasitology as a viable, distinct discipline is under threat. In this environment, veterinary parasitologists must be adaptable, imaginative and pro-active in terms of setting the agendas for establishing strategic alliances, promoting research needs and developing research programs.     

Raccoon roundworm (Baylisascaris procyonis) as an occupational hazard: 1. Knowledge of B. procyonis and attitudes towards it and other zoonoses among wildlife rehabilitators

Wildlife rehabilitators are at risk of zoonotic diseases because they often have prolonged contact with many species of wildlife and their bodily fluids. Raccoon roundworm (Baylisascaris procyonis) is a common zoonotic parasite of raccoons that has the potential to cause severe or fatal neurologic disease in a broad variety of hosts if the eggs within raccoon faeces are ingested. We administered an online survey to wildlife rehabilitators to assess their knowledge regarding aspects of transmission, biology and disease caused by B. procyonis, and also to evaluate attitudes towards wildlife diseases and B. procyonis as an occupational hazard. Knowledge was assessed using multiple choice and true–false questions; attitudes were measured using Likert‐type items. A total of 659 complete or near‐complete responses (missing fewer than three knowledge or attitudes items and/or non‐response to some demographic fields) were collected. The median knowledge score was 7/14 questions correct (range: 0–14 correct). Generally, individuals with higher levels of education and rehabilitation experience, veterinary professionals and those who are members of professional wildlife rehabilitation groups scored above the median significantly more often (p < .01). Significantly more rehabilitators who were located in the south‐east and those with part‐time or infrequent commitments scored below the median overall knowledge score. There was general agreement that B. procyonis is a health risk of rehabilitators and that measures should be taken to control transmission to people and animals. Some factors explaining differences in attitudes include setting of rehabilitation (home versus animal care facility), veterinary profession, region, membership in a wildlife rehabilitation group and rehabilitation of raccoons. Findings emphasize the importance of awareness and mentorship to inform rehabilitators on the potential risks of B. procyonis and other potential zoonoses within captive wildlife settings, and the important role of professional wildlife rehabilitator groups in disseminating educational materials.     

The Canadian Cooperative Wildlife Health Centre and surveillance of wild animal diseases in Canada.

The Canadian Cooperative Wildlife Health Centre (CCWHC) was established in 1992 as an organization among Canada's 4 veterinary colleges, with a mandate to apply veterinary medicine to wildlife management and conservation in Canada. A major function of the CCWHC is nation-wide surveillance of wild animal diseases. Disease surveillance is conceived as consisting of 4 different activities: detection, diagnosis, information management, and use of information. In the CCWHC surveillance program, detection of disease is carried out by a wide range of professional and avocational field personnel, and much effort is expended to stimulate and support this activity. Diagnosis is done by personnel of provincial and federal veterinary laboratories and the CCWHC. Information management is achieved through a national database of wildlife disease incidents developed and maintained by the CCWHC. Use of information is enabled through established channels for distribution of information derived from the surveillance program to persons responsible for wildlife programs and policies, and to the public. There has been a high demand for the services of the CCWHC since its establishment. The CCWHC responds to approximately 2000 requests for information annually, distributes its newsletter to over 1700 recipients, examines approximately 1200 wild animal submissions each year, and has accumulated records of over 5000 disease incidents in its database. Technical information from the CCWHC has benefited federal, provincial/territorial, and nongovernment wildlife agencies; endangered species recovery programs; federal and provincial veterinary services; and federal and provincial public health programs.     

Wildlife veterinarian, conservation and public health

In recent years wildlife diseases (infectious and non-infectious) have played a relevant role in both wildlife conservation and public health. Global environmental changes have determined a bimodal evolution of wildlife. On one side a huge loss of biodiversity has been observed leading to the increasing of threatened or endangered species. In contrast few opportunistic taxa increased their aboundances and ranges. The above scenarios claim the intervention of wildlife veterinarians. In conservation the understanding of the ecological role of the host parasite relationship and the perturbations on the host population dynamics have to be assessed and eventually modified. In public health the increased overlapping among wildlife, livestock, pets and human beings represents a risk for diseases spread (no matter in which directions). Serious limits are, still now, observed in the acceptance of this 'new world' by veterinary academics. As a consequence curricula often fail in providing adequate skill at both undergraduate and graduate levels. An addressed approach towards wildlife diseases should be promoted as an essential component of environmental management.     

Twenty Years of Experience with Dairy Herd Health in Ontario

This article expresses observations on planned herd health for dairy cattle, based on experience gained in the Ambulatory Clinic practice of the Ontario Veterinary College. The author and his colleagues, especially Dr. R.A. Curtis, have initiated and delivered a preventive medicine approach to veterinary practice in the teaching program and teaching practice for the past 20 years. In addition, herd health presentations have been made to veterinary associations in every province in Canada and to many breed associations and producer organizations. The Canadian food animal veterinarian and his clients have been informed at meetings and by the media of the need, objectives, methods and benefits of dairy herd health and many veterinary practices now offer programs to their clients. Herd health has become a household word in Canada's dairy practices and dairy farms.

A formal herd health program is an important step to achieving total health management; but maximum returns on investment can only be realized after three or four generations of cattle have been reared on the program.

In conclusion, herd health practice has been a very satisfying aspect of veterinary medicine and a profitable and valued service for our clients. Maintenance of health involves the application of all knowledge and procedures which veterinarians have to offer.

     

Historical perspective and future directions in training of veterinary pathologists with an emphasis on zoo and wildlife species

This article discusses the history of the field of zoo and wildlife pathology, training opportunities for veterinary students and graduate veterinarians, and current and future job opportunities. The niches occupied by veterinarians in this field and their contributions to animal and human health are also highlighted. The field of zoo and wildlife, or "non-traditional" species, pathology has its roots in comparative anatomy, zoology, wildlife biology, and medical pathology in the mid- to late nineteenth century. The initial emphasis was on comparisons between animal and human diseases or on management of game animals. Veterinarians became increasingly involved during the twentieth century, gradually changing the emphasis to improvement of conservation strategies, captive care, and elucidation of diseases of concern for the animals themselves. Currently there are several zoos and wildlife agencies in the United States employing full-time veterinary pathologists. Private and government diagnostic laboratories, veterinary schools, and other academic institutions in the United States with pathology departments are other employers. The field requires post-DVM training by means of a residency program leading to board certification, graduate school (MS or PhD degrees), or both. Veterinary students can gain valuable experience in the field through externships and, at some schools, through elective courses in the curriculum. Current concerns about ecosystem health, bioterrorism, and the recognition that captive and free-ranging wildlife can serve as sentinel species will increase the demand for veterinary pathologists choosing this very rewarding career path specializing in non-traditional species.     

Sentinel lymph node mapping with computed tomography lymphography for mast cell tumours and a comparison between regional and sentinel lymph node histological status: Sixty-two cases

It is known that the regional lymph node (RLN) may not correspond to the sentinel lymph node (SLN) (the first lymph node draining the tumour), and many diagnostic techniques have recently been aimed at its detection. Although lymphoscintigraphy is the gold standard in both human and veterinary medicine for SLN mapping, it is relatively unavailable in veterinary medicine due to costs and difficult management of the radiotracer. This prospective study evaluated, as a first aim, the feasibility and sensitivity of the computed tomography lymphography (CTL) in detecting the SLN in 62 mast cell tumours (MCTs). The second aim was to evaluate the accuracy of the CTL in identifying the most representative lymph node of the patient's lymphatic status; the histological status of the SNL was compared with that of the RLN, to see in how many cases the patient's stage would have changed according to the RLN. When the RLN turned out to be also the SLN it was decided to excise, as a control LN, the one localised in the neighbourhood of the MCT (neighbouring lymph node; NLN). The detection rate was 90%, with failure of SLN identification in six cases. In 18 (32%) of 56 MCTs with a diagnostic CTL, the SLN did not correspond to the RLN. Forty-five MCTs were surgically removed, together with their corresponding SLN and RLN/NLN. Since the clinical stage of the patient would have changed in only 7% of cases, CTL is a reliable method of detecting the SLN and, for staging purposes, there is no need to remove other LNs.     

The Cornell Leadership Program for Veterinary Students

Cornell University hosts a summer program for veterinary students who aspire to research careers. The program features independent, faculty-guided research; vocational counseling; and professional enrichment activities that seek to build teamwork skills and to foster critical thinking and effective communication. A total of 255 students from 49 veterinary colleges worldwide have taken part in the program since 1990. Among those who have completed their veterinary education, approximately half have followed career trajectories of the kind envisioned by the program. While this outcome is gratifying, it was also learned that some program graduates subsequently withdrew from a research-oriented academic track after many years of graduate study. That disquieting outcome underscores the need to inform aspiring veterinary scientists about the realities of a research career; to structure their graduate studies in a manner that will maximize their prospects of success; to provide them with ongoing guidance and assistance; and to reward them at a level that will ensure that they remain in training for a period sufficient to realize their career expectations.     

Current perspectives on curriculum needs in zoological medicine

Advances have been made in expanding veterinary curricula to deliver basic key knowledge and skills necessary for provision of health care to captive and companion non-domestic or non-traditional species in the veterinary colleges of the United States and Canada. These advances were in large part facilitated by the deliberations and recommendations of the White Oak Accords. Though a five-year review of curricular opportunities at US and Canadian veterinary colleges shows that progress has been made in implementing the recommendations of the White Oak Accords, there remains room for improvement. The broadly comparative and health-maintenance basis of zoological medicine contributes critically to the potential for veterinary medicine to make important contributions to the concept of the integrated health of the planet. Emergence of key zoonotic and production-animal diseases derived from and within wildlife populations since 2000 has increased awareness worldwide of the importance of zoological medicine in protecting both production livestock and public health. These areas are addressed in elective curricula at colleges emerging as centers of excellence in zoological medicine, but it is critical that core curricula in zoological medicine at all schools be strengthened to include these important areas to prepare our DVM/VMD graduates to protect companion-animal, production-animal, and public health.     

Veterinary applications of cytokines

In the recent past a large variety of cytokines have been cloned for most important veterinary species and more is planned with development of a coordinated approach to cytokine reagents production. Application of these cytokines in veterinary species can be found in the development of effective diagnostics, with the IFN-gamma-based detection of tuberculosis as a prime example. In addition, cytokines have been used to determine which immune responses are essential for immune protection with flow-on effects for the development of novel ways to induce these specific immune responses. The realisation that the murine immune system is quite different from the human, together with the increased availability of cytokine reagents for many large animals plus unique experimental approaches only available in these animals, has lead to an explosion in the use of veterinary species as models for human diseases.     

Introduction to interventional radiology for the criticalist

Objectives – To introduce the basic equipment necessary to perform interventional radiology (IR) techniques in the veterinary setting, particularly those procedures of interest to the criticalist. Data Sources – Veterinary and human literature as well as author's experience. Human Data Synthesis – Since the 1950s, diagnostic angiography has played an important role in human medicine. However, over the last 2–3 decades, this once purely diagnostic modality has become a subspecialty in human medicine with vast applications throughout the body. These techniques have replaced more invasive surgeries as the standard‐of‐care in many circumstances. Veterinary Data Synthesis – Although comparable data are not available in the veterinary literature, many IR and interventional endoscopy techniques are poised to replace more invasive procedures in veterinary medicine. In addition, these techniques have already been shown to offer treatment options for patients in whom more traditional therapies have failed, have been declined, or are not indicated due to comorbidities or substantial risk to patient health. Conclusions – Like our human medical counterparts, the use of IR techniques will likely play and increasingly important role in the care of veterinary patients. With this in mind, it is important to become familiar with both the equipment used in these techniques as well as their applications both currently in clinical cases and in the near future.     

Impact of climate change in the epidemiology of vector-borne diseases in domestic carnivores

Vector-borne diseases are medically important in humans and animals but were long considered tropical and known to first affect production animals. This is no longer true and we can see today that they are common in domestic animals and that they are also present in temperate countries, especially in Europe. In recent years, an increase in the diagnosis of vector borne diseases among humans and animals has been observed, which may partly due to the development of diagnostic tools. Their study requires exchanges and collaborations between the many actors involved, especially since the epidemiology seems to be constantly evolving. The veterinary practitioner is the first one to notice the emergence of cases and to implement prevention measures. He also acts as a sentinel to alert epidemiologists. Many factors can explain the epidemiological changes, i.e. all human factors, such as the increase in commercial transportation, but also owners traveling with their pet during the holidays, the development of “outdoor” activities, the increase of individual housings with gardens; to these human factors must be added the ignorance of the risks, linked to animals in general and to wildlife in particular; then the environmental changes: forest fragmentation, establishment of parks; the increase of wild mammal populations (deer, carnivores, rodents, etc.); finally, climate changes. Climate change is a reality which may explain the increase of density of arthropod vectors, but also of their hosts, changes in periods of activity and variations in geographical distribution. The authors show the proof of the climate modifications and then explain how it has an impact in Europe on ticks, mosquitoes, sandflies and even fleas. They conclude on the practical consequences for veterinary practitioners, especially with the diagnosis of parasitic diseases or diseases in areas where they usually do not occur. However, not any epidemiological modification should be linked to climate change, since many other factors are involved and often even overriding.     

Exotic animal corporate practice.

I have attempted to give insight into many of the aspects of a corporate veterinary job in the retail pet industry. Understand that these are my experiences, and corporate jobs are as diverse as the number of corporations in this field. My experiences have been positive because I have been fortunate enough to become an integral part of a company with an outstanding company ethic regarding animal care and business as a whole. This is a dream position for a veterinarian who wishes to make a far-reaching difference for animals. At PETCO I am the Animal Advocate and I do have the responsibility to look at every situation through the eyes of the animals. I take this responsibility very seriously and understand that every decision I make has a lasting impact on not only the animals we sell but also the associates who daily give their heart and soul as they care for the animals in our stores. This is the way I have chosen to make a difference in the world: by using my veterinary education as well as my life experiences in ways that are very different from the James Herriot of old-different from the advanced veterinary practices in this new millennium but steadfastly following the same principles we promised to uphold when we took the veterinary oath... Being admitted to the profession of veterinary medicine, I solemnly swear to use my scientific knowledge and skills for the benefit of society through the protection of animal health, the relief of animal suffering,the conservation of livestock resources, the promotion of public health, and the advancement of medical knowledge. I will practice my profession conscientiously, with dignity, and in keeping with the principles of veterinary medical ethics. I accept as a lifelong obligation the continual improvement of my professional knowledge and competence.     

Risk factors associated with self-reported Q fever in Australian wildlife rehabilitators: Findings from an online survey

Australian wildlife rehabilitators (AWR) are at increased risk of developing Q fever, a serious zoonotic disease caused by the intracellular bacterium Coxiella burnetii. Previous studies have suggested that Australian wildlife may be a potential C. burnetii infection source for humans. However, a recent serological survey of AWR found no association between C. burnetii exposure and direct contact with any wildlife species. To further explore the potential risk that wildlife may pose, this study aimed to identify associations between self-reported Q fever in AWR and risk factors for exposure to C. burnetii. An online cross-sectional survey was implemented in 2018 targeting AWR nationwide. Risk factors for self-reported Q fever were determined using multivariable logistic regression. Medically diagnosed Q fever was self-reported in 4.5% (13/287) of unvaccinated respondents. Rehabilitators who self-reported medically diagnosed Q fever were significantly more likely to: primarily rehabilitate wildlife at a veterinary clinic (OR 17.87, 95% CI: 3.09–110.92), have domestic ruminants residing on the property where they rehabilitate wildlife (OR 11.75, 95% CI: 2.91–57.42), have been educated at a High School/Technical and Further Education level (OR 10.29, 95% CI: 2.13–84.03) and be aged >50 years (OR 6.61, 95% CI: 1.60–38.35). No association was found between self-reported Q fever and direct contact with wildlife. These findings support previous work suggesting that AWR are at increased risk of C. burnetii infection and may develop Q fever potentially via exposure to traditional infection sources including livestock, other domestic animals, or contaminated environments, in association with their rehabilitation practices and lifestyle. Although Q fever vaccination is recommended for AWR, vaccine uptake is low in this population. Future studies should aim to determine the level of Q fever awareness and identify barriers to Q fever vaccination in this at-risk group. The difficulty in accessing the AWR population also highlights the need for a national centralized AWR database.     

Building on existing models from human medical education to develop a communication curriculum in veterinary medicine

Communication is a core clinical skill of veterinary medicine and one that needs to be taught and learned to the same degree as other clinical skills. To provide this education and essential expertise, veterinary schools in many countries, especially including North America, the United Kingdom, and Australia, have begun to develop programs and communication curricula. Human medical education, however, has 30 years' experience in developing communication curricula, and is thus an excellent resource upon which veterinary educators can build and shape their own communication programs. This article describes a skills-based communication course that has been successfully implemented for veterinary medical education at Ontario Veterinary College (OVC) and was based on the University of Calgary Faculty of Medicine's well-established program. The Calgary-Cambridge Guides and supporting textbooks provide the scaffolding for teaching, learning, and evaluation in both programs. Resources such as space and materials to support the OVC program were also patterned after Calgary's program. Communication skills, and the methods for teaching and learning them, are equally applicable for the needs of both human medicine and veterinary medicine. The research evidence from human medicine is also very applicable for veterinary medicine and provides it the leverage it needs to move forward. With this extensive base available, veterinary medicine is in a position to move communication skills training forward rapidly.     

The role of female veterinarians in Africa

While the number of female veterinary students has reached figures as over 80% in the Netherlands and other European countries, the number of female veterinary students in Africa is also changing but still at a slower pace. Still nowadays, according to UNICEF, two-thirds of primary school age children, denied their right to basic education, are girls. In addition, especially in rural areas in Africa, there are only few secondary schools, so that children, either have to travel over large distances on a daily basis or have to live away from their families. As girls, already from an early age play an important role in the daily household routine, they are often not allowed to leave for schooling. There used to be less than 10 veterinary faculties in Africa during the first half of the 20th century. These faculties were located in South Africa, Sudan, Egypt and Nigeria. For many years, African veterinarians were also trained in western countries (UK, France, USA) or in former communist countries (Russia, Ukraine, Romania, Hungary Eastern Germany, Cuba) depending on the existence of historic or political links. A long stay abroad made it more difficult for female students, especially for those with children. Still nowadays, female veterinarians in Africa are mostly working for the veterinary departments mainly in the urban areas. Another area where many female veterinarians can be found are governmental diagnostic and research laboratories as well as training institutions such as veterinary faculties or agricultural colleges. Generally the salaries at these institutions are very low and therefore their male colleagues have gradually shifted to work in the private sector with more competitive salaries (private clinics, sector pharmaceutical companies, development projects, (agricultural) banks, etc). As still in most societies, women tend to follow their husbands, most female veterinarians are bound to find employment where their husbands are based. In addition, as most postgraduate training required a prolonged stay abroad, women encountered difficulties in leaving their families behind to improve their career perspectives. Gradually, there has been an increase of possibilities of post-graduate training in the African region as well as the introduction of a modular system and perspectives for training over the internet. These developments will clearly be beneficial for women, as it will enable them to follow post-graduate training without leaving their families for extended periods. Gradually, also female veterinarians in Africa are becoming empowered and recognise their capabilities. The understanding of the importance of gender aspects especially with regard to animal husbandry practices has opened up new opportunities for female veterinarians to work in extension services and as health promoters. The access to further education is the key to expanding their professional perspectives.