Occupational health hazards in veterinary medicine: zoonoses and other biological hazards

This study describes biological hazards reported by veterinarians working in western Canada obtained through a self-administered mailed questionnaire. The potential occupational hazards included as biological hazards were zoonotic disease events, exposure to rabies, injuries due to bites and scratches, and allergies. Only 16.7% (136/812) of responding veterinarians reported the occurrence of a zoonosis or exposure to rabies in the past 5 years; the most commonly reported event was ringworm. Most bites and scratches (86%) described by 586 veterinarians involved encounters with cats; 81% of the resulting 163 infections were due to cat bites or scratches. Approximately 38% of participants reported developing an allergy during their career, with 41% of the affected individuals altering the way they practiced in response to their allergy.     

Disease and injury among veterinarians

OBJECTIVE: To identify occupational causes of disease and injury in veterinarians and their staff. DESIGN: A self-administered questionnaire was mailed to all of the 160 registered veterinary practices in Western Australia. RESULTS: Injuries accounted for most workers' compensation claims over a 12-month period with 31% of respondents losing a total of 360 work days with a mean of 13.3 days whereas non-occupational diseases such as influenza accounted for 408 work days lost. Over a 10-year period, 71% of respondents had been injured. The major physical injuries were dog and cat bites, cat scratches, scalpel blade cuts and back injuries from lifting heavy animals. Exposure to chemicals such as flea rinses, formalin, glutaraldehyde, x-ray developers and gaseous anaesthetics were reported to cause headache, nausea and allergies. Thirty percent of respondents did not have extractor fans for scavenging waste anaesthetic gases. The study showed high use of radiography (94%) for diagnostic purposes with 24% of respondents believing radiation exposure is a major occupational health and safety issue. Stress, drug abuse, suicide and burglary were also reported. Despite a high awareness of zoonotic diseases, there were very few reports of these. CONCLUSION: Injuries and other occupational hazards reported together with work days lost demonstrate a need for improving the working environment of veterinarians and their staff and the development of comprehensive health and safety programs.     

Occupational injuries and illnesses reported by zoo veterinarians in the United States.

A 14-page comprehensive survey was mailed to all 565 United States members of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians to identify the frequency of physical injuries, radiation exposures, chemical exposures, allergic or irritant reactions, infections, and use of preventive measures, and 315 (55.8%) veterinarians responded. Significant findings include major animal-related injury (61.5%), back injury (55%), necropsy injury (44.1%), adverse formalin exposure (40.2%), animal allergy (32.2%), zoonotic infection (30.2%), and insect allergy (14.2%). We also found that gender, length of experience, and practice type affected the number and type of incidents encountered in practice. Females reported a higher rate of zoonotic infection, insect allergy, and adverse exposure to anesthetic gas, formalin, and disinfectants/sterilants. Zoo veterinarians with more years of experience were more likely to receive major animal-related injury and associated hospitalization, back injury, and lost work time associated with back injury. Full-time zoo veterinarians were more likely to report back injury and inadequate knowledge of occupational hazards. Results are compared with hazards reported by veterinarians working in other fields. The frequency of injuries reported demonstrates a greater need for comprehensive health and safety programs for zoo veterinarians.     

Prevalence of occupational exposures and protective practices in Australian female veterinarians

OBJECTIVE: To identify the prevalence of exposure to potentially harmful occupational hazards in Australian female veterinarians and to report factors associated with prevalence of occupational hazards in this profession. DESIGN: National cross-sectional survey of a cohort population. PROCEDURE: A self-administered questionnaire was mailed to 5748 veterinarians (males and females) graduating from Australian veterinary schools from 1960 to 2000. This paper reports the prevalence of occupational exposures in 1197 female veterinarians in their current job including radiation, anaesthetic gases, pesticides and long working hours. Comparisons were undertaken between respondents by practice type and decades of graduation. Multivariate logistic regression was undertaken to predict the risk for exposure to occupational hazards in female veterinarians by age, type of practice, graduation year and number of hours worked. RESULTS: The response rate for females was 59%. We found that age under 30 years, small and mixed animal practice, graduation year after 1990, and working more than 45 hours per week were all associated with greater exposure to putative risk factors. Mixed animal practitioners worked more than 45 hours per week (53%) and reported the highest exposure to anaesthetic gases (94%) and pesticides (54%). Twenty two percent of those who were exposed to anaesthetic gases did not have waste anaesthetic gas scavenging systems. Small animal practitioners reported they took more X-rays (90%). While taking X-rays, 56% of respondents reported physically restraining animals, and only one in five of respondents used film holders and lead screens. CONCLUSIONS: The high prevalence of potentially harmful exposures among female veterinarians and lack of use of protective equipment at work needs to be considered in developing and planning the safety of veterinary work.     

Occupational health risks in veterinary nursing: an exploratory study

OBJECTIVES: The aims of this exploratory study were to survey the prevalence of certain exposures and health problems among a group of veterinary nurses attending the International Veterinary Nurses' Conference in Brisbane, Australia, 2003 and to identify the main concerns among those veterinary nurses with regard to occupational health hazards they may face. METHODS AND MATERIALS: An anonymous self-administered questionnaire was distributed among all attendees of the International Veterinary Nurses' Conference 2003, Brisbane, Australia (N=147 respondents among 215 surveyed). RESULTS: The prevalence of exposure to X-radiation (97%), anaesthetics (96%), disinfectants (96%) and vaccines (85%) was high. More than 70% of the nurses were exposed to formaldehyde (76%) and pesticides/insecticides (71%). For all exposures except vaccines, about 50% of the nurses exposed were worried about negative health consequences. Acute injuries were common with 98% of the nurses experiencing dog/cat bites/scratches, 71% experiencing needle stick injuries and 43% experiencing lacerations. More than half of the nurses (52%) suffered from chronic back/neck pain and 39% reported having allergy or hay fever. Sixteen cases (11%) of Cat Scratch Fever were reported. Job related affective well-being was similar to a large sample of workers in comparable level jobs. CONCLUSION: Among attendees of a veterinary nurses conference, the proportion of this group of nurses exposed to hazards in their work environment was high and acute and chronic injuries were common. Considering that nurses account for more than 40% of total employment in the veterinary service industry, the results of this study show that the occupational health hazards of this professional group require further study.     

Current joint therapy usage in equine practice: a survey of veterinarians 2009

Reasons for performing study: Medications are frequently employed to treat intra‐articular (IA) problems in the performance horse. Actual usage of the different IA medications in horses is not available. Objectives: To determine the most common usage of these medications, members of the American Association of Equine Practitioners (AAEP) were surveyed. Methods: An email link to an online survey was electronically sent to 6305 AAEP members and the responses tabulated and analysed with a logistic regression model. Results: A total of 831 survey responses were submitted and tabulated. Eighty per cent of the respondents indicated that they see 100% equine cases in their practice. The majority of respondents (77%) use triamcinolone acetonide (TA) to treat high motion joints and 73% use methylprednisolone acetate (MPA) to treat low motion joints. Veterinarians treating the Western performance and Sport horse were significantly more likely to use TA in high motion joints compared to MPA (P = 0.0201 and P<0.0001, respectively). Triamcinolone acetonide use compared to MPA in high motion joints by racehorse veterinarians was significantly lower compared to other veterinarians (P<0.0001). Polysulphated glycosaminoglycan (Adequan) and hyaluronate sodium (Legend) were the most commonly used disease modifying products (63 and 57% of respondents, respectively). Sport horse practitioners were significantly more likely than race or show horse veterinarians to utilise IRAP products (P = 0.0035 and P = 0.04, respectively). Respondents who had been in practice for more than 10 years were significantly less likely to use antimicrobials in their joint injections compared to those in practice for less than 10 years (P<0.0001). Conclusions: Significant differences existed in usage of medications related to primary discipline treated and years practicing. Potential relevance: The results of this study aid in defining the current usage of different joint therapy medications within equine practice. This knowledge can guide further research as well as education.     

Length of veterinary working life

Objective To estimate the time veterinary graduates spend in private practice and in veterinary work generally, and to determine what factors influence this.
Methods Questionnaires were completed in the sixth year after graduation by 119 veterinarians who had participated in this longitudinal study since starting the veterinary course, and the data were analysed using the SAS System for Windows.
Results Of those who started the veterinary course, 90% graduated, and 96% of these then entered private practice. Five years later 94% (73% in full-time equivalents) were working as veterinarians, and 64% (50% in full-time equivalents) were still in private practice in Australia. Hours, attitudes of principals and clients, and inadequate rewards were the main reasons for leaving private practice. The likelihood of being still in private practice was greater for those who had had significant responsibility for animals before they entered the course, but it was not related to geographical origin (city vs country), age at entry or gender. Women were, however, more likely than men to be working part time as veterinarians. Predictions of veterinary working life were not affected by geographical origin or by previous experience with animals or on farms, but men expected to work longer than women.
Conclusion The average veterinary career, estimated by veterinarians who graduated 5 years earlier, is 24 years in fulltime equivalents for men, and 16 years for women. Almost all (94%, representing 73% in full-time equivalents) still work as veterinarians after 5 years, most of them (76%, representing 59% in full-time equivalents) in private practice. The likelihood of remaining in private practice is related to previous responsibility for animals.     

Carriage of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus by veterinarians in Australia

Objective To estimate the prevalence of carriage of methicillin‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) among Australian veterinarians. Methods Individuals attending veterinary conferences in Australia in 2009 were recruited to provide nasal swabs and complete a questionnaire about their professional activities. Swabs were processed by standard methods for detecting MRSA and questionnaire responses were used to group veterinarians according to their areas of major work emphasis (species and practice type). Prevalence was estimated for each of these grouping and contingency tables and regression tree analysis used to explain the variation in MRSA carriage. Results Among the 771 respondents ‘industry and government veterinarians’ (controls) had the lowest prevalence of MRSA carriage at 0.9%. Veterinarians with horses as a major area of work emphasis had a prevalence of 11.8% (13‐fold that of controls) and those whose only major emphasis was horses had a prevalence of 21.4% (23‐fold that of controls). Veterinarians with dogs and cats as a major activity had a 4.9% prevalence (5‐fold that of controls). Prevalence rates for other major activities (pigs, dairy and beef cattle, avian and wildlife) were also increased, but were estimated from smaller numbers of respondents. Regression tree analysis clearly isolated equine veterinarians and dog and cat practitioners as groups at increased risk of carriage of MRSA. Conclusion Carriage of MRSA is a notable occupational health issue for veterinarians in clinical practice in Australia, particularly those who work with horses.     

Occupational health hazards in veterinary medicine: physical, psychological, and chemical hazards

This paper reports physical, psychological, and chemical hazards relevant to western Canadian veterinarians as obtained by a self-administered mailed questionnaire. Nine-three percent (750/806) of veterinarians reported some form of injury during the previous 5 years; 17% of respondents (131/791) indicated injuries that resulted in 1 or more days off work. Median stress levels were similar across work environments; overall, 7% (57/813) indicated either no stress or severe stress, while 53% (428/813) indicated moderate stress. Twenty percent (3/15) of food animal practitioners and 37% (114/308) of companion animal practitioners who took X-rays reported accidental exposure. Accidental exposure to gas anesthetic was reported by 69% (394/570) of those in private practice. Exposure to chemicals occurred in all work environments. Veterinarians in western Canada are at risk of minor to severe injury due to both animal and non-animal related causes.     

Treatment of canine lymphoma by veterinarians in first opinion practice in England

A survey of canine lymphoma treatment strategies by veterinarians in first opinion practice was undertaken by sending questionnaires to 1000 randomly selected, first opinion small animal veterinary practices throughout England. Completed replies were received from 382 veterinarians. Ninety-five per cent of respondents had diagnosed canine lymphoma in the preceding 12 months. Eighty-seven per cent of respondents treated at least 50 per cent of the cases of canine lymphoma they diagnosed. A multidrug combination of vincristine, cyclophosphamide and prednisolone (COP) was the treatment protocol most commonly used. A doxorubicin-based treatment protocol was used by 2 per cent of respondents to treat canine lymphoma initially. The study suggests that, despite several reports of improved survival times with doxorubicin-based protocols, most veterinarians in first opinion practice in England treat canine lymphoma with COP.     

Prevalence and patterns of self-reported animal-related injury among veterinarians in metropolitan Kampala

To establish the prevalence, patterns and risk factors of animal-related injuries among veterinarians, self-administered questionnaires were given to 60 veterinarians practicing in metropolitan Kampala. The prevalence of animal-related injuries in metropolitan Kampala was 72% (95%CI, 57~84). Some veterinarians (34%) suffered multiple injuries with a mean and median of 2.1 and 2.0 injuries per veterinarian, respectively. Of a total of 70 self-reported animal related injuries, cattle accounted for 72%, cats for 25%, dogs for 23%, self inoculation for 15% and birds for 13%. Injuries associated with poultry did not require hospital treatment. The upper limb was the most the frequently (68%) injured anatomical body part of veterinarians, and vaccination of animals (25%) was the major activity associated with injury. Animal-related injuries are common among practicing veterinarians in metropolitan Kampala; however, they did not differ significantly based on the veterinarian''s gender, experience or risk awareness.     

Attitudes, procedures, and delivery of behavior services by veterinarians in small animal practice

OBJECTIVE: To survey veterinarians in small animal practice concerning their attitudes about delivery of behavior services, frequency of common behavior problems, manner in which services were provided, confidence in their clinical ability to treat these behavior problems, frequency of use of pharmacologic intervention, and number of dogs and cats euthanatized specifically because of behavior problems. DESIGN: Cross-sectional mail survey. SAMPLE POPULATION: Random sample of veterinarians in small animal practice in the United States. PROCEDURE: A self-administered mail survey was sent to a random sample of 2,000 veterinarians. Results were tabulated and statistically analyzed. RESULTS: It was estimated that approximately 224,000 dogs and cats were euthanatized annually in small animal veterinary practices in the United States because of behavior problems. Although veterinarians seemed unwilling to euthanatize animals for behavior problems solely on the basis of a client's request, many veterinarians did not routinely inquire about animal behavior and often were not confident in their clinical skills to treat behavior problems. Female veterinarians tended to be more proactive in addressing behavior problems and to have more positive attitudes than male veterinarians about the importance of animal behavior. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Efforts are needed to increase the number of veterinarians who systematically incorporate inquiries about animal behavior into routine clinical practice and to build the confidence of veterinarians for diagnosing and treating animal behavior problems.     

Longitudinal study of career plans and directions of veterinary students and recent graduates during the first five years after graduation

Objectives To determine the patterns of work undertaken by veterinarians during the first 5 years after graduation, and to study the background to career decisions. Design Longitudinal study. Population Veterinarians (119) who started the veterinary course at The University of Queensland in 1985 and 1986, and who responded to a mailed questionnaire 5 years after they graduated. Procedure Questionnaires were completed in the first and fifth year of the veterinary course, and in the second and after the fifth year after graduation. The data were coded numerically and analysed using the SAS System for Windows. Results Most respondents (61%) planned to work in mixed practice and 61% entered mixed practice initially, but only 39% of these (26% of the total) remained in mixed practice after 5 years. Those who had grown up on a farm which derived primary income from animals were more likely to enter mixed practice, but half of this group had left mixed practice after 5 years. Most decisions to change career direction involved a move away from negative factors including inadequate private time and/or rewards, issues involving other people including the practice principal and sometimes clients, or aspects of the work itself. However, some cited positive reasons, including opportunities to learn, to help others or to travel. There were no significant differences between males and females in the numbers entering mixed practice or leaving it, or entering small animal practice, or in attitudes to many issues involving veterinarians. However, more females than males found their remuneration too small, and females did receive significantly smaller incomes than males. Conclusions Most graduating veterinarians, especially those from farms with animals, seek to enter mixed practice initially. Negative experiences are mainly responsible for moves to small animal practice. Gender does not affect the distribution of young veterinarians between mixed and small animal practice.     

Survey of veterinary conference attendees for evidence of zoonotic infection by feline retroviruses

OBJECTIVE: To examine exposure risks, possibility of zoonosis, and potential disease associations for feline retroviruses among a group of occupationally exposed individuals. DESIGN: Unlinked voluntary cross-sectional epidemiologic survey. SAMPLE POPULATION: 204 veterinarians, laboratory scientists, and other occupationally exposed individuals who attended a veterinary conference on feline geriatric medicine. PROCEDURE: Blood was collected from participants who also completed a 13-question survey requesting demographic, occupational, exposure, and health information. Blood specimens were fractionated into plasma and mononuclear cell components. Plasma was tested for antibodies against feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) and feline foamy virus (FeFV), as well as p27 antigen of FeLV. Mononuclear cell lysates were tested for FeLV provirus. RESULTS: Subjects reported extensive duration of work with cats (mean, 17.3 years) and multiple high-risk exposures (eg, cat bites, scratches, and injuries with sharp instruments) per year. However, neither serologic nor molecular evidence of zoonosis with any of the 3 feline retroviruses was detected. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Veterinarians encounter occupational exposures to animal material that place them at high risk for zoonoses. For feline retroviruses, the risk of zoonosis among healthy adult humans appears to be extremely small. However, potential for retroviral zoonosis, especially for viruses such as FeLV and FeFV that can replicate in human cells, cannot be eliminated, and universal precautions to reduce potential exposures should be used when handling sick cats.     

Kick injuries of veterinarians during examination and treatment of horses: a retrospective study in Switzerland

The risk of injury to veterinarians treating horses is high, particularly when performing painful procedures. The present retrospective study investigated this risk, including the frequency and severity of kick injuries, by submitting questionnaires to 700 veterinary practitioners in Switzerland. Evaluation of 216 completed questionnaires revealed that the frequency of kick injuries was affected by the professional experience of the veterinarian, veterinarians being an owner of a horse, the season, the type of procedure, the percentage of equine patients in the practice population, the treatment location (stall, pasture) and chemical restraint of the patient. Severe injuries incurred by veterinarians in recent years were few in number and the result of a number of unfortunate circumstances, which included hurried procedures due to time restraints and unforeseen events that frightened the patient. The risk factors derived from the full statistical model are the percentage of equine patients in the practice population, the treatment location, the type of procedure and chemical restraint of the patient. Using this information, it should be feasible to reduce the risk of injuries. Sedation of horses undergoing painful procedures, choosing a safe treatment location and caution on the part of the veterinarian are advised to reduce the number of injuries.     

Cross-sectional survey of surgical techniques used to perform dog and cat spays in New Zealand veterinary practice

ABSTRACT

Aims: To describe the variation in surgical techniques used by veterinarians to perform routine dog and cat spays in first-opinion veterinary practice in New Zealand, and how these techniques differed with the number of years since the veterinarian graduated.

Methods: A cross-sectional survey of veterinarians registered to practice in New Zealand was conducted online between 1 April and 30 May 2018. Respondents were asked their year of graduation and about the procedures, they would use to perform a routine spay of a healthy, 5?kg, young adult, female domestic shorthair cat, and a healthy, 20?kg, young adult, female mixed-breed dog. The number of years since graduation was calculated by subtracting the reported year of graduation from 2018.

Results: Overall, 282 respondents provided details about dog spays, and 361 about cat spays, and the median number of years since graduation was 14 (min 0, max 50). Only 54/282 (19.1%) respondents performing dog spays and 43/361 (11.9%) performing cat spays wore a surgical cap, gown, mask, and gloves. For dog spays, 278 (98.6%) respondents used a ventral midline approach and 147 (52.1%) used manual exteriorisation of the uterus. Most used two clamps (168; 59.6%) and used two encircling ligatures (152; 53.9%) for removal of the uterus. For cat spays, 254 (70.4%) respondents used a ventral midline approach and 313 (86.7%) used a spay hook for exteriorising the uterus. Most used two clamps (250; 69.3%) with one encircling ligature (213; 59.0%) for removal of the uterus. Simple interrupted external or intradermal patterns were mostly used for skin closure for both dog and cat spays. For cat spays, the percentage of respondents using the ventral midline approach decreased with increasing years since graduation (p?<?0.001). For both dog and cat spays, the percentage of respondents using two encircling ligatures and transfixation ligation of the uterus, and using a simple continuous suture pattern for the closure of the abdomen, decreased with number of years since graduation (p?<?0.05).

Conclusions and clinical relevance: Veterinarians responding to this survey used a wide range of techniques to perform routine dog and cat spays, some of which were associated with the number of years since graduation. It may be beneficial to provide veterinarians with resources to reflect on their current approaches for performing routine spays. However further research is needed to determine whether any surgical techniques are superior to others.     

Our time is now – how companion animal veterinarians can transform biomedical science

Over the past decade, there has been growing interest in the “One Health” agenda, defined by the One Health Initiative to be “a worldwide strategy for expanding interdisciplinary collaborations and communications in all aspects of health care for humans, animals and the environment.” The concept has spawned numerous conferences, under‐ and post‐graduate courses and has been the topic of dozens of articles that have discussed how medical doctors, scientists and veterinarians can work together to improve the health of both animals and humans. Although there is widespread agreement about the potential benefits of medical doctors and veterinarians working more closely together, this is far from routine practice for most companion animal veterinarians. This article reflects on why the topic of “One Health” is attracting such interest at the moment and discusses some of the reasons why the “One Health” agenda offers companion animal veterinarians a chance to be centre stage in the global drive to improve the health of both animals and humans.     

Evaluation of urine marking by cats as a model for understanding veterinary diagnostic and treatment approaches and client attitudes

OBJECTIVE: To obtain information regarding diagnostic and treatment approaches of veterinarians and attitudes and beliefs of clients about a common clinical problem, urine marking in cats. DESIGN: Cohort study. STUDY POPULATION: 70 veterinarians providing care for urine-marking cats and 500 owners of urine-marking cats. PROCEDURE: Veterinarians were interviewed via telephone regarding criteria for diagnosis of urine marking and recommended treatments. Cat owners who responded to recruitment efforts for a clinical trial for urine-marking cats were interviewed via telephone regarding whether and from what sources they sought help to resolve the marking problem. RESULTS: Almost a third of veterinarians did not seem to correctly distinguish between urine marking (spraying) and inappropriate urination. Those that did make this diagnostic distinction reported recommending environmental management and prescribing medication significantly more often that those that did not make this distinction. Seventy-four percent of cat owners sought help from their veterinarians for urine marking; other common sources of information were the Internet and friends. Among those who did not consult a veterinarian, the most frequently cited reason was that they did not think their veterinarian could help. Among cat owners who consulted their veterinarians, 8% reported receiving advice on environmental hygiene and 4% on environmental management (limiting intercat interactions), although veterinarians who correctly diagnosed urine marking reported giving such advice 100 and 83% of the time, respectively. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results may serve as a model for obtaining information critical to developing veterinary continuing education and public outreach programs for animal owners for various diseases.     

The impact of AVMA COE's accreditation on veterinary medical education

Point 1: the American Veterinary Medical Association Council on Education's (AVMA COE's) accreditation pro-cess is aimed at minimum training for entry-level veterinarians. This has a two-fold consequence: 1. The opportunity to discover the absolute minimum number of necessary resources is opened. While this is a threat to the standard model of veterinary education, it might have value if it is cost-efficient and students graduate with minimal or no debt. 2. There is no mechanism to measure training,research, or service programs above the minimum or beyond the entry level. Point 2: the implication of the minimum entry-level general standard is also two-fold: 1. We must measure performance above the mini-mum. A separate process is necessary (a) to develop and implement objective metrics and (b) to publicize superior achievement as opposed to minimal performance. 2. We must measure and publicize institutions or programs that advance the field beyond training entry-level veterinarians. Service, research, and training aimed at advancing the field, providing leadership, and improving public health and safety(One Health) require separate measurement and advocacy in order to obtain and justify the necessary resources. I conclude that in the absence of a new process by which to measure excellence, market forces will push the entire profession toward the most cost-effective method of providing minimal training for entry-level veterinarians. But what about the far more expensive goal of providing a global public good of which our profession is so proud?The public health and safety mission of veterinary medi-cine, including the entire One Health initiative, requires separate measurement in order to give objective metrics to the institutions and components of the profession committed to those goals to pursue vigorous advocacy and obtain or retain the necessary resources.     

Feline blood transfusions: A pinker shade of pale

PRACTICAL RELEVANCE: blood transfusions are a potentially life-saving procedure that are within the reach of most small animal practitioners. Only minimal equipment is required. PATIENT GROUP: any cat with clinical signs attributable to a reduced red blood cell mass that is affecting oxygen transport (as a result of reduced packed cell volume or acute blood loss) is a potential candidate for a transfusion. CLINICAL CHALLENGES: although the principles of transfusion medicine are not complicated, there can be fatal consequences if certain steps are omitted. DIAGNOSTICS: blood typing kits and blood filters are readily available from veterinary wholesalers, laboratories and blood banking services. EVIDENCE BASE: over the past three decades, a substantial body of clinical research and reports has built up covering feline blood types and transfusion medicine. This article draws on that research to provide clinical guidance aimed at all veterinarians in feline or small animal practice who either currently practise transfusion medicine or plan to do so.