Cohabitation of pregnant white-tailed deer and cattle persistently infected with Bovine viral diarrhea virus results in persistently infected fawns

Economic losses due to infection with Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) have prompted introduction of organized control programs. These programs primarily focus on the removal of persistently infected (PI) animals, the main source of BVDV transmission. Recently, persistent BVDV infection was demonstrated experimentally in white-tailed deer, the most abundant wild ruminant in North America. Contact of cattle and white-tailed deer may result in interspecific BVDV transmission and birth of persistently infected offspring that could be a threat to control programs. The objective of this study was to assess the potential for interspecific BVDV transmission from persistently infected cattle cohabitated with pregnant white-tailed deer. Seven female and one male white-tailed deer were captured and bred in captivity. At approximately 50 days of gestation, two cattle persistently infected with BVDV 1 were cohabitated with the deer. In a pen of approximately 0.8 ha, both species shared food and water sources for a period of 60 days. Transmission of BVDV as indicated by seroconversion was demonstrated in all exposed adult deer. Of the seven pregnancies, four resulted in offspring that were infected with BVDV. Persistent infection was demonstrated in three singlet fawns by immunohistochemistry and ELISA on skin samples, PCR, and virus isolation procedures. Furthermore, two stillborn fetuses were apparently persistently infected. This is the first report of BVDV transmission from cattle to white-tailed deer using a model of natural challenge. Under appropriate circumstances, BVDV may efficiently cross the species barrier to cause transplacental infection and persistently infected offspring in a wildlife species.     

Helminths of guinea fowl (Numida meleagris) in Bashkir ASSR

Guinea fowl from different regions of Bashkir Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (BASSR) were examined for helminths. Of the 547 fowl examined, 451 (82.4%) harboured at least one species of helminth. A total of 56,772 helminths were collected and classified. Of this number seven were found to be trematodes, 25 cestodes and 56,740 nematodes. Five species of helminths were identified. Amongst infected birds, trematodes were present in three (0.7%), cestodes in eight (1.8%) and nematodes in 451 (100%). Of all recorded helminths, the incidence of Heterakis gallinarum (Gmelin, 1790) was highest. Pre-patent periods for seven species of trematodes were observed in guinea fowl for the first time.     

Distribution of Arcobacter species among livestock in Japan

A survey was conducted to examine the distribution of Arcobacter species among livestock in Japan. During May 1999 and May 2000, fecal samples from cattle (n=332) and swine (n=250), chicken cloacal swabs (n=234), and vaginal swabs of cattle (n=61) and swine (n=15) were submitted for the isolation of Arcobacter species. Arcobacter species were isolated from 3.6 and 10.0% of the cattle and swine fecal samples, respectively, along with 14.5% of chicken cloacal swabs. No significant seasonal differences were observed. Species-specific polymerase chain reaction assay showed that A. butzleri was the most prevalent species (83.3, 60.0 and 47.1% of the cattle, swine and chicken isolates, respectively), followed by A. cryaerophilus 1B (16.7, 36.0 and 55.9% of the cattle, swine and chicken isolates, respectively). Of the samples from vaginal swabs, 8.1 and 13.3% were positive for Arcobacter in cattle and swine, respectively. This is the first report demonstrating the distribution of Arcobacter species among livestock in Japan.     

Behavioural studies on the potential for direct transmission of tuberculosis from feral ferrets (Mustela furo) and possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) to farmed livestock

Studies were conducted to evaluate the response of cattle and deer to ferrets which were sedated so they behaved like terminally tuberculous animals, and to compare this with the response of cattle, deer and sheep to sedated possums. Six groups of deer and two groups of cattle were exposed to a sedated ferret and to a sedated possum. Both livestock species showed interest in the possum by sniffing and licking it, but they only briefly touched the ferret and no licking or extended investigation was observed. The proportion of available time spent in physical contact with the possum by cattle was 7.7 times as high as for the ferret, and for the deer was 5.7 times as high. The behavioural response of three groups of sheep to a sedated possum was investigated, and sheep showed limited interest beyond viewing the possum from a distance. The amount of time spent by sheep investigating the possum was very low and the intensity of exploration was also low. For possums, at least one deer was within 1.5 m (an estimate of the distance that tuberculosis can be transmitted by aerosol) for 50.9% of observation time, and in physical contact with the possum for 9.5% of time. The figures for cattle were 69.3% and 17.3%, while those for sheep were 6.9% and 0.3%. In interactions with ferrets, the equivalent figures were 29.8% within 1.5 m and 2.2% in physical contact for cattle, and 20.8% and 1.1% for deer. Tuberculous possums commonly and tuberculous ferrets less commonly have lung lesions and/or discharging sinuses, and may excrete Mycobacterium bovis intermittently or continuously in aerosols or discharges. The exploratory behaviour of deer and cattle in this study would provide opportunities for them to become infected with M. bovis if they had contact with infectious possums, and less probably with ferrets. The response of sheep to possums suggests that they would be much less likely to contract the disease.     

Dictyocaulus species: cross infection between cattle and red deer

Aim: To discover whether cross infection between red deer (Cervus elaphus) and cattle is possible with either a bovine isolate of the cattle lungworm, Dictyocaulus viviparus, or with a cervine isolate of the lungworm, Dictyocaulus eckerti which is thought to be maintained primarily in deer. Method: Twelve cattle and 12 red deer were reared parasite-free from birth. At 3-4 months of age, half of each species (n=6) were experimentally infected with D. viviparus and the other half with D. eckerti. The course of infection was monitored for 34 days, after which the animals were slaughtered and the lungs removed to assess levels of infection. Results: Faecal larval counts demonstrated that patent Dictyocaulus infections occurred in all groups. At necropsy, adult worms were found in the lungs in all groups except the cattle that were infected with D. eckerti. The largest numbers of adult worms were found in the red deer infected with D. eckerti. Conclusion: It was demonstrated that both cattle and red deer could be infected with either D. viviparus or D. eckerti. However, D. eckerti larvae that originated from deer established more successfully in deer and D. viviparus larvae that originated from cattle established more successfully in cattle.     

Surveillance of Parapoxvirus Among Ruminants in Virginia and Connecticut

In 2008, two deer hunters in Virginia and Connecticut were infected with a unique strain of pseudocowpox virus, a parapoxvirus. To estimate the prevalence of this virus, and in an attempt to define the reservoir, Parapoxvirus surveillance was undertaken between November 2009 and January 2010. 125 samples from four ruminant species (cows, goat, sheep and white‐tailed deer) were collected in Virginia, and nine samples from white‐tailed deer were collected in Connecticut. We found no evidence that the parapoxvirus species that infected the deer hunters is circulating among domesticated ruminants or white‐tailed deer. However, parapoxvirus DNA of a different parapoxvirus species, bovine papular stomatitis virus (BPSV), was detected in 31 samples obtained from asymptomatic cattle in Virginia. Parapoxvirus DNA–positive cattle originated from the same counties indicating probable transmission among animals. Molecular analysis identified BPSV as the parapoxvirus affecting animals. Asymptomatic parapoxvirus infections in livestock, particularly young animals, may be common, and further investigation will inform our knowledge of virus transmission.     

Comparison by experimental infections in cattle of a Dictyocaulus species occurring naturally in red deer and a dictyocaulus of bovine origin

Dictyocaulus species larvae were obtained from young red deer which had become infected on pastures considered to be carrying the Dictyocaulus species indigenous to the red deer of Scotland. These larvae were cultured to third stage and transmitted to five bovine calves. Five other bovine calves were infected with third stage Dictyocaulus viviparus larvae of bovine origin. Microscopic appearances of both groups of larvae were indistinguishable and their lengths were similar. Results indicated that the Dictyocaulus species derived from deer induced milder though similar clinical and pathological responses in cattle than did the D viviparus derived from cattle. It was concluded that there are strains of different pathogenicity within the species D viviparus, that the deer derived Dictyocaulus species was a strain of D viviparus, and that the hazards to animal health associated with infection by D viviparus in farming systems where red deer and cattle may graze alternately are likely to be acceptable.     

Leptospiral antibodies in serum from cattle, swine, horses, deer, sheep, and goats: 1973 and 1974.

During 2 years (fiscal years 1973 and 1974), microscopic agglutination tests were performed on 12,565 serums from cattle, swine, horses, deer, sheep, and goats for the detection of leptospiral antibodies. The most frequent presumptive infecting serogroups were Hebdomadis, Pomona, Autumnalis, Ballum, Australis, and Canicola.     

Foot-and-mouth disease in British deer: transmission of virus to cattle, sheep and deer.

After exposure for two hours to cattle with foot-and-mouth disease, each of the five species of deer found in the British countryside became infected. Clinical disease was typical and severe in the roe and muntjac deer, with some animals dying, less severe in the sika deer and usually subclinical in the fallow and red deer. Each species transmitted disease to its own species and to cattle and sheep. The amounts of virus present in the blood, and in oesophageal/pharyngeal samples and excreted as an aerosol during the course of the infection in the deer were similar to those recorded for the sheep and cattle in the same experiment. The fallow and sika deer commonly carried virus in the pharynx beyond 28 days after exposure; some red deer also became carriers. In epidemics of foot-and-mouth disease in the UK, it is likely that deer would have such intimate contact with farm animals as occurred in this study. The natural behavior of free-living deer in the UK suggests that, although the five species are susceptible to foot-and-mouth disease, they are unlikely to be an important factor in the maintenance and transmission of the virus during an epidemic of foot-and-mouth disease in domestic livestock.     

Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis from free-ranging deer and rabbits surrounding Minnesota dairy herds

The objectives of this study were to estimate the prevalence of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) among deer and rabbits surrounding infected and noninfected Minnesota dairy farms using fecal culture, and to describe the frequency that farm management practices were used that could potentially lead to transmission of infection between these species. Fecal samples from cows and the cow environment were collected from 108 Minnesota dairy herds, and fecal pellets from free-ranging white-tailed deer and eastern cottontail rabbits were collected from locations surrounding 114 farms; all samples were tested using bacterial culture. In addition, a questionnaire was administered to 114 herd owners. Sixty-two percent of the dairy herds had at least 1 positive fecal pool or environmental sample. A total of 218 rabbit samples were collected from 90% of the herds, and 309 deer samples were collected from 47% of the herds. On 2 (4%) of the farms sampled, 1 deer fecal sample was MAP positive. Both farms had samples from the cow fecal pool and cow environment that were positive by culture. On 2 (2%) other farms, 1 rabbit fecal sample was positive by culture to MAP, with one of these farms having positive cow fecal pools and cow environmental samples. Pasture was used on 79% of the study farms as a grazing area for cattle, mainly for dry cows (75%) and bred or prebred heifers (87%). Of the 114 farms, 88 (77%) provided access to drylot for their cattle, mainly for milking cows (77/88; 88%) and bred heifers (87%). Of all study farms, 90 (79%) used some solid manure broadcasting on their crop fields. Of all 114 farms, the estimated probability of daily physical contact between cattle manure and deer or rabbits was 20% and 25%, respectively. Possible contact between cattle manure and deer or rabbits was estimated to occur primarily from March through December. The frequency of pasture or drylot use and manure spreading on crop fields may be important risk factors for transmission of MAP among dairy cattle, deer, and rabbits. Although the MAP prevalence among rabbits and deer is low, their role as MAP reservoirs should be considered.     

Serological comparisons of antigenically related herpesviruses in cattle,red deer and goats

Serological comparisons were made using related herpesviruses from cattle (bovid herpesvirus 1), red deer (herpesvirus of cervidae 1) and goats (bovid herpesvirus 6) by virus neutralization and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. The test samples comprised field sera from British cattle, red deer and goats and sera from experimentally infected or immunized animals. Both the cervine and caprine viruses appeared to be more closely related to bovid herpesvirus 1 than they were to each other. Cattle sera reacted most strongly with the bovine virus and deer sera with the cervine virus. Antibodies to the caprine virus were not detected in the samples from British goats.     

Evidence of Anaplasma infections in European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) from southern Spain

Anaplasma spp. (Rickettsiales: Anaplasmataceae) are tick-borne pathogens of veterinary and human importance. The wildlife hosts for these pathogens are not well characterized and may play an important role in the epidemiology of the disease. The objective of this research was to study the infection with A. marginale, A. ovis and A. phagocytophilum in free-ranging European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) from Cádiz, Andalucía, Spain. Of 17 roe deer tested, 14 (82%) and 5 (29%) had antibodies reactive to Anaplasma spp. and A. phagocytophilum by competitive ELISA and indirect immunofluorescent antibody testing, respectively. Polymerase chain reaction and sequence analysis of Anaplasma major surface protein 4 (msp4) gene was conducted on blood samples from all roe deer examined. Nine (53%) animals had evidence of infection with A. ovis and 3 (18%) were positive for A. phagocytophilum. Concurrent infections were not detected. Despite the presence of A. marginale infections in cattle in the study site (36% msp4 PCR-positive animals), none of the msp4 amplicons from roe deer corresponded to A. marginale sequences. A. ovis msp4 sequences were identical to a genotype previously identified in sheep in Sicily, Italy. Two different A. phagocytophilum genotypes were identified in infected roe deer. This is the first report of roe deer naturally infected with A. ovis. These results demonstrate that roe deer are infected with A. ovis and A. phagocytophilum in Spain and suggest that this species may be involved in the natural cycle of these pathogens in this region, thus acting as potential reservoir for transmission to domestic and wild animals.     

Pestivirus infections in Norway. Serological investigations in cattle, sheep and pigs.

Serum samples from 1,133 dairy cows (187 herds), 3,712 ewes (103 flocks) and 1,317 adult pigs (877 herds), were tested for neutralizing antibodies against the NADL strain of bovine virus diarrhoea virus. The prevalence rate of seropositive animals was 18.5% in cattle, 4.5% in sheep and 2.2% in pigs, such seroreactors being found in 28% of the cattle herds and 18% of the sheep flocks. In all three species the rate showed considerable herd and geographical variation. In cattle the seroreactor rate was similar in herds with normal reproduction and in 62 herds with problems of repeat breeding. Of 31 pig sera containing antibodies against the NADL strain, 27 were also positive in a neutralization test for antibodies against swine fever virus (Baker strain). However, all sera showed a higher titre of antibodies against the bovine strain than against the swine fever virus. It was concluded that the immune response of the pigs had been induced by ruminant pestivirus, and not by swine fever virus.     

Parasitism in llamas

Llamas in North America are infected with a number of helminth parasites, including: gastrointestinal nematodes, lungworms, meningeal worms, tapeworms, and flukes. Most of these helminths can be treated with the anthelmintic currently used to treat cattle and sheep. At least two protozoan parasites, coccidia and toxoplasma, have been reported in the llamas in North America. Coccidia can be controlled with the anticoccidial drugs used to control these organisms in other domestic animals. Toxoplasma has been reported uncommonly in llamas in North America and control is very difficult. Several external parasites occur in llamas in North America, including lice, mites, ticks, and the deer nasal bot. Except for the deer nasal bot, the other external parasites in the llama can be treated with pesticides approved for use in cattle.     

Quantification of the transmission of bovine herpesvirus 1 among red deer (Cervus elaphus) under experimental conditions

Bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV1) is endemically present in a cattle population that lives in a nature reserve in the Netherlands. Red deer (Cervus elaphus), living in the same nature reserve, can come into contact with the BHV1-infected cattle and could then become infected with BHV1. For the eradication of BHV1 in cattle, it is, therefore, important to know whether red deer alone can play a role in the transmission of BHV1. For that reason, we quantified the transmission of BHV1 among farmed red deer under experimental conditions. Two groups of ten animals were formed. In each group, five of these animals were inoculated with BHV1 and the other five served as contact animals. Three inoculated animals in each transmission experiment became infected and none of the contact animals became infected. The one-sided 95% confidence interval for R [0.0-0.94] showed that limited transmission might occur among red deer. Based on these results, we would expect only minor outbreaks of BHV1 to occur in red deer populations. We concluded that BHV1 will probably not survive longer than a few decades (several times the mean deer lifetime) in red deer populations. Consequently, it is not necessary for the eradication of BHV1 in cattle to eradicate BHV1 in red deer populations as well.     

Evaluation of hunter-harvested white-tailed deer for evidence of bovine viral diarrhea virus infection in Alabama.

Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) is one of the most relevant pathogens affecting today's cattle industries. Although great strides have been made in understanding this virus in cattle, little is known about the role of wildlife in the epidemiology of BVDV. While persistently infected cattle are the most important reservoir, free-ranging ungulates may become infected with BVDV as demonstrated by serosurveys and experimental infections. Therefore, free-ranging wildlife may maintain BVDV as the result of an independent cycle and may serve as a reservoir for the virus. Systematic studies on prevalence of BVDV-specific antibodies or frequency of persistent BVDV infection in North American wildlife are sparse, and no information is available from the southeastern United States. The objective of this study was to evaluate blood and skin samples from hunter-harvested white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) for evidence of BVDV infection. Virus-neutralizing antibodies were detected in 2 of 165 serum samples. Skin biopsy immunohistochemistry (IHC) was performed on samples from 406 deer using a BVDV-specific monoclonal antibody (MAb) (15c5), and BVDV antigen was detected in one sample. A similar IHC staining pattern was obtained using a second BVDV MAb (3.12F1). Viral antigen distribution in the skin sample of this deer resembled that found in persistently infected cattle and in a previously described persistently infected white-tailed deer; thus, the deer was presumed to be persistently infected. Evidence of BVDV infection in free-ranging white-tailed deer should encourage further systematic investigation of the prevalence of BVDV in wildlife.     

Experimental transmission of sheep-associated malignant catarrhal fever from sheep to Japanese deer (Cervus nippon) and cattle

The assumption that sheep carry ovine herpesvirus-2 (OvHV-2), the causative agent of sheep-associated malignant catarrhal fever (SA-MCF), is widely accepted, albeit OvHV-2 has not been isolated. We attempted experimental contact transmission of MCF from Japanese sheep persistently infected with OvHV-2 to Japanese deer (Cervus nippon) and cattle. In Experiment 1, a deer was kept in close quarters with an infected ewe. In Experiment 2, a second deer was kept with the same ewe. In Experiment 3, two cows were each kept with two infected wethers. In Experiment 1, the deer developed clinical signs at 138 days after first contact and then died. OvHV-2 genes by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and fluorescent antibodies to Alcelaphine herpesvirus-1 were detected in the affected deer. Moreover, sequences of PCR products (423bp), obtained by amplification of materials from the sheep and from the affected deer, coincided. These results clearly confirmed that the sheep was a carrier of OvHV-2, and that this virus had induced SA-MCF in a deer. In other experiments, no OvHV-2 infection occurred in deer and cattle during the 6-18 months periods of contact, though viral genes were detected in the nasal swabs and white blood cells of the sheep. To our knowledge, this is the first report on successful experimental transmission of MCF from OvHV-2-infected sheep to deer.     

Histological observations of bovine tuberculosis in lung and lymph node tissues from British deer

Deer are recognized as hosts of Mycobacterium bovis and assessing the role of wild cervids in perpetuating tuberculosis among cattle has motivated extensive research on several continents. In this paper, the histopathology of lymph node and lung tuberculous granulomas in M. bovis positive British deer is presented. The overall aim was to seek further insights into the potential for onward transmission from infected deer to other species, including cattle. Samples were obtained from an extensive survey of wild mammals in South-West England and from statutory tuberculosis surveillance. M. bovis culture-positive samples were characterised microscopically as to their stage of lesion advancement, number of acid-fast bacilli and granuloma encapsulation. Seventy percent of the deer developed granulomas containing far greater numbers of M. bovis bacilli than typically reported in cattle. Red and fallow deer had the largest number of poorly encapsulated granulomas often containing many hundreds of bacilli. The results are consistent with infected wild British deer being a potential source of environmental contamination and onward transmission to other species. However, further work on levels of bacillary shedding is required before this can be confirmed.     

Prevalence of sparganosis by county of origin in Florida feral swine

Sparganosis is a parasitic infection in amphibians, reptiles and mammals including feral swine and man. It is caused by migration of the metacestode (spargana) of Spirometra. The primary objective of this study was the determination of the prevalence of gross sparganosis in Florida county of origin in slaughtered feral swine. Tracebacks to county of origin were conducted for Florida feral swine with and without gross sparganosis. Feral swine trapped in Florida and presented for slaughter in a Texas slaughter establishment from May to December 1999 was the sample population.Overall prevalence of sparganosis in Florida feral swine was 6.9%. Because Highlands county had the same prevalence, other counties were compared to it. Sparganosis was detected in 17 Florida counties. Swine originating from Osceola or Hillsborough counties (4.3 and 1.8% prevalence, respectively) had lower prevalence of sparganosis than in Highlands, whereas those from Marion county (21.7% prevalence) had a higher prevalence.Transmission to humans may occur via consumption of infected feral swine, other species of secondary intermediate hosts or the primary intermediate hosts.     

Experimental persistent infection with bovine viral diarrhea virus in white-tailed deer

Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) infections cause substantial economic losses to the cattle industries. Persistently infected (PI) cattle are the most important reservoir for BVDV. White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) are the most abundant species of wild ruminants in the United States and contact between cattle and deer is common. If the outcome of fetal infection of white-tailed deer is similar to cattle, PI white-tailed deer may pose a threat to BVDV control programs. The objective of this study was to determine if experimental infection of pregnant white-tailed deer with BVDV would result in the birth of PI offspring. Nine female and one male white-tailed deer were captured and housed at a captive deer isolation facility. After natural mating had occurred, all does were inoculated intranasally at approximately 50 days of pregnancy with 10(6) CCID(50) each of a BVDV 1 (BJ) and BVDV 2 (PA131) strain. Although no clinical signs of BVDV infection were observed or abortions detected, only one pregnancy advanced to term. On day 167 post-inoculation, one doe delivered a live fawn and a mummified fetus. The fawn was translocated to an isolation facility to be hand-raised. The fawn was determined to be PI with BVDV 2 by serial virus isolation from serum and white blood cells, immunohistochemistry on skin biopsy, and RT-PCR. This is the first report of persistent infection of white-tailed deer with BVDV. Further research is needed to assess the impact of PI white-tailed deer on BVDV control programs in cattle.