West Nile virus-associated mortality events in domestic Chukar partridges (Alectoris chukar) and domestic Impeyan pheasants (Lophophorus impeyanus)

West Nile virus (WNV) infection was diagnosed in captive juvenile chukars (Alectoris chukar), and captive juvenile Impeyan pheasants (Lophophorus impeyanus) on the basis of necropsy, histopathology, polymerase chain reaction, and immunohistochemistry. The chukars were kept in a game bird farm that experienced two outbreaks with approximately 25% mortality in hundreds of chukars between September and October 2002 and during the same months in 2003. The submitted pheasants were part of a group of 15 juvenile Impeyan pheasants that all died within approximately 2 wk at the end of August 2002. The macroscopic lesions in the pheasants were dominated by mucosal hemorrhage at the proventricular to ventricular junction and cecal ulcers, whereas the gross lesions in the chukar partridges were nonspecific. The predominant microscopic lesion in the chukar partridges was myocardial necrosis, whereas fibrinous and necrotizing splenitis was prominent in the pheasants. Viral antigen was usually widespread in animals of both species. Spontaneously occurring WNV infection should be considered a differential diagnosis in cases of mortality among select species of galliform birds.     

Natural Bagaza virus infection in game birds in southern Spain

ABSTRACT: In late summer 2010 a mosquito born flavivirus not previously reported in Europe called Bagaza virus (BAGV) caused high mortality in red-legged partridges (Alectoris rufa) and ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus). We studied clinical findings, lesions and viral antigen distribution in naturally BAGV infected game birds in order to understand the apparently higher impact on red-legged partridges. The disease induced neurologic signs in the two galliform species and, to a lesser extent, in common wood pigeons (Columba palumbus). In red-legged partridges infection by BAGV caused severe haemosiderosis in the liver and spleen that was absent in pheasants and less evident in common wood pigeons. Also, BAGV antigen was present in vascular endothelium in multiple organs in red-legged partridges, and in the spleen in common wood pigeons, while in ring-necked pheasants it was only detected in neurons and glial cells in the brain. These findings indicate tropism of BAGV for endothelial cells and a severe haemolytic process in red-legged partridges in addition to the central nervous lesions that were found in all three species.     

Bagaza virus is pathogenic and transmitted by direct contact in experimentally infected partridges,but is not infectious in house sparrows and adult mice

Bagaza virus (BAGV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus belonging to the Ntaya serocomplex. In 2010, a disease outbreak was reported in Cádiz (Southern Spain) affecting game birds (red-legged partridges and common pheasants). In this work, red-legged partridges were inoculated experimentally with infectious BAGV isolated from this outbreak in order to make a complete clinical and analytical assessment of the disease caused by the pathogen in this species. Viral load (by real-time RT-PCR) in blood, oral and cloacal swabs, and feathers, and neutralizing antibody titres (by VNT) were measured. In order to determine direct contact transmission, non-inoculated partridges were caged together with the inoculated ones. To assess infectiousness in other species, house sparrows and mice were also inoculated with the virus. All the inoculated partridges were clinically affected, and 30% of them died. All the infected individuals lost weight, with larger losses being recorded in females. Conversely, no mortality or disease symptoms were observed in the sparrows or mice. Remarkably, all the contact partridges acquired the infection by direct (non-vectored) transmission. This study confirms that the red-legged partridge is a susceptible host for BAGV infection, and that this pathogen is transmitted by direct contact. Long-lasting viral loads detected in calami of immature feathers demonstrate that feather sampling could be a useful strategy in active surveillance programs for early detection of BAGV.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13567-015-0233-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

The helminth and coccidial fauna of pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) in view of the specific environmental conditions in pheasantries and in the wild

Between October 1999 and January 2000 all together 151 male pheasants were examined for endoparasites. 33 one-year-old birds came from two pheasantries, the remaining 118 birds, aged between one and five years, were wildlife animals. The infestation extensy of all pheasants with endoparasites were 96.7%. A mostly low infestation with coccidia of the three species Eimeria (E.) phasiani, E. duodenalis and E. tetartooimia were detected in 41% of all birds. E. tetartooimia was found in Germany for the first time. In 67.5% of the pheasants the five different species of capillaria (Capillaria (C.) annulata, C. bursata, C. contorta, C. perforans, C. phasianina) and in 84.1% the nematode Heterakis gallinarum were present. Pheasants in the capture group showed higher infestation intensy and extensy. In 51.5% of the pheasants of the capture group Syngamus trachea was present. In one pheasant an acanthocephalus (Plagiorhynchus cylindraceus) was detected for the first time in Germany and in two pheasants a trematode of the genus Echinostoma was present.     

Description of Eimeria pavonina (coccidia) of peafowl in Germany

There are only a few reports about the occurrence of coccidia in peafowl and no reports about the occurrence of Eimeria spp. in peafowl kept in Europe. Here, we describe the occurrence of Eimeria pavonina in diseased peafowl from Germany. In January 2011, one young peacock kept in an aviary showed a marked depression. No parasites were detected in samples from the diseased bird, but in samples of birds from the same and other aviaries, coccidian counts were between 400/g and 66,000/g. All peacocks were treated with toltrazuril. After treatment, the clinical condition of the diseased bird improved but, two weeks afterwards, other birds in the aviary were still shedding coccidia in their feces. Based on morphology, the coccidia were identified as E. pavonina. Parts of the 18s rRNA gene and the cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (cox-1) gene were sequenced. A phylogenetic tree based on the 18s rRNA sequence placed the Eimeria sp. from peafowl closest to Eimeria spp. found in pheasants and partridges as well as to Eimeria meleagrimitis. A phylogenetic tree based on the sequence of cox-1 in contrast suggested a closer relationship to Eimeria necatrix and Eimeria tenella.     

Histological Study of Lymphatic Nodules and their Distributions Throughout the Cecum of the Caspian Miniature Horse

The cecum is a great cul-de sac intercalated between the small intestine and the colon. It has a remarkable size in the equine and digestion of more than 30% of total cellulose and production of volatile fatty acids by anaerobic metabolism of cellulose by its micro flora were made on it. It has also a substantial number of lymphatic nodules, which in horses are located near the apex. Topographically, cecum is situated chiefly to the right of the median plane and occupies around the whole volume of there in the abdominal cavity. The histological structure of the lymphatic follicles and their distributions pattern throughout the cecum in five healthy mature miniature horses (an special species of horses lives only in north of Iran) were studied (Fig. 1a). Each cecum was divided into three parts, namely, the base, body and apex, and samples were taken from each part immediately after slaughter and fixed with 10% buffered formalin. Routine histological laboratory techniques were made and 6 μm ?sections were cut and stained with haematoxylin and eosin staining and studied under light microscope. Lymphatic nodules were mostly found in the submucosa, but they disrupted the muscularis mucosa and merged into the lamina propria (Fig. 1c). The thickness of the mucosa and submucosa at these sites was smaller, and the epithelium that covered the mucosa was here modified into simple squamous or low cuboidal epithelia with dark and flattened nuclei (Figs 1b,d). The large and small lymphatic nodules were extensively accumulated in the apex, forming a nearly continuous layer in lamina propria and submucosa. However, they were less prominent at the base and least in the body of the cecum.
 

     

高原鼠兔和高原鼢鼠胃肠组织形态比较研究

为探究高原鼠兔(Ochotona curzoniae)与高原鼢鼠(Eospalax baileyi)胃肠道形态在高原恶劣环境中对食物资源和能量需求的适应对策,将捕获于青藏高原高寒草甸的高原鼠兔(8 ♀,7 ♂)和高原鼢鼠(9♀,6 ♂)解剖后,测定其胃肠道形态指标,采用独立样本t检验和协方差分析进行对比。结果显示,两种动物胃肠道形态在种内性别间差异表现为雄性高原鼠兔小肠长度、盲肠鲜重显著大于雌性(P＜0.05),雄性高原鼢鼠小肠和盲肠长度、大肠鲜重及胃和大肠净鲜重显著高于雌性(P＜0.05)。在种间水平上,高原鼠兔小肠和盲肠长度、盲肠净鲜重显著大于高原鼢鼠(P＜0.05),而其胃和大肠长度、大肠鲜重显著小于高原鼢鼠(P＜0.05)。研究表明,高原鼠兔和高原鼢鼠的前肠和后肠因其种间能量需求和食性的不同存在代偿性差异;同一物种雌、雄个体均通过改变小肠长度来适应性别间差异化的能量需求。     

Gross Anatomical Features of the Gastrointestinal Tract (GIT) of Blue and Yellow Macaws (Ara ararauna) – Oral Cavity and Pharynx

Morphological studies of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) of blue and yellow macaws (Ara ararauna) are scarce. Therefore, this study aims to describe the macaw's oropharyngeal cavity in order to supply the deficiency of anatomical data and as part of a broad study of the GIT of these birds. Two male and one female adult blue and yellow macaws were anatomically dissected to expose the oropharynx. The macaw oropharynx was ‘V‐shaped’ and flattened laterally being composed of maxillary and mandibular rhamphotheca of the beak. The tongue, lingual frenulum and laryngeal mound (containing ‘spindle‐shaped’ glottis and prominent mucosal papillae) formed the floor of the oropharynx. The roof revealed two distinct regions separated by a ‘step‐like depression’, whereas in the floor, the mandibular rhamphotheca was separated from the oral cavity mucosa by a large vestibulum enclosing the lingual frenulum. The palate was hard without any signs of rugae nor palatine raphe. A smooth ridge extended caudally from the choana to the common opening of the Eustachian tubes. This study, in addition to confirming the basic features of the oropharynx previously described for birds in general, provided new, unreported morphological data, some of which may be important when studying nutrition and health of these birds.     

Anatomic-topographic description of the stomach, small intestine, large intestine and their arteries of the greater mara (Dolichotis patagonum Desmarest 1820)

The abdominal parts of the alimentary canal and the associated arteries from seven male and nine female maras are described. The mara possesses a stomach with a single cavity and a glandular mucosa lining. The large stomach is situated caudal of the liver at right-angles to the longitudinal body axis. The long jejunum is located on the left side of the body caudal of the stomach. The cecum has two teniae and numerous haustra which are proximal larger than distal. The smooth colon ascendens runs proximal parallel to the cecum and describes distal an U-shaped double-loop. The internal surface of the proximal part of the colon ascendens is characterized by two parallel mucosal ledges. Cecum and colon ascendens lie right caudal of the liver. The colon descendens is coiled and situated on the left body side. The A. gastrica sinistra and branches of the A. lienalis and the A. hepatica supply the stomach. The A. mesenterica cranialis which branches of separately from the A. coeliaca is a large and long vessel that supplies the major parts of the small intestine and the colon. The A. mesenterica caudalis supplies parts of the colon desendens and of the rectum.     

Prevalence of foot disorders in captive Sardinian partridges (Alectoris barbara barbara Bonnaterre, 1790) as useful indicators of fitness to natural environment

Foot health represents an issue in wild avifauna breeding practices. In particular, prevalence of digital ulceration (DU ) and foot pad dermatitis (FPD ) are valid indicators of welfare in wildlife conservation centres and may be interpreted as to fitness for bird's reintroduction into the wild. This study meant to test the effects of raising practices on foot pad health in captive Sardinian partridges (Alectoris barbara barbara Bonnaterre, 1790) reared for biodiversity conservation, to assess welfare and fitness to reintroduction into nature. A total of 22 couples were allotted into two experimental groups. In one group, 10 couples were housed in 10 cages for breeding partridges, consisting of two animals each, with metal wire flooring system, above trays where droppings were collected. The remaining 12 couples were housed in six aviaries, consisting of four animals each, on natural (earth and stones) ground. In both groups, partridges were fed identical diets. No significant differences of food pad scoring were found between birds housed in cages (2.3 ± 0.4) and those reared in aviaries on natural ground (2.5 ± 0.6). Moreover, scores of male foot pads for both groups (2.4 ± 0.6) had no significant differences in comparison with female foot pads, independently on housing (2.5 ± 0.4). Body mass (BM ) was higher (+4.36%) than average BM reported for wild Sardinian partridges. Digital ulceration was found in the 20% of females, exclusively from the cage group. Body mass of females in cages with metal wire flooring appeared to be significantly (p  < .001) and negatively correlated (r  = ?.528) with DU prevalence. These results suggest that housing conditions impacts differently on behaviour of females and males in one same couple, and this relates to foot health, in particular as to DU prevalence.     

Detection of Mycoplasma synoviae in clinically normal pheasants

Mycoplasma synoviae was isolated from the tracheas of seven clinically normal pheasants found in the vicinity of a chicken farm infected with M synoviae, but not from 120 pheasants and partridges with respiratory disease. When specimens were examined by the polymerase chain reaction only two additional pheasants infected with M synoviae were identified, one healthy and one diseased.     

Equine salmonellosis in southern Brazil

The Salmonella sp. genus is identified in several species, and the zoonosis it causes is one of the most important types worldwide. The specifics of salmonellosis vary according to the function of the serovar involved, the species affected, age and predisposing factors. However, few cases of equine salmonellosis have been reported. This study presents ten confirmed salmonellosis cases in equines in southern Brazil. Six were adult animals with stress factors preceding the disease, while four were foals, three of which presented with hyperacute manifestations. The main clinical signs were diarrhea, anorexia, and hyperthermia. Lesions varied in distribution and severity, although fibrinonecrotic or necrohemorrhagic enteritis was observed in all animals, mainly in the large intestine (large colon and cecum—8/10) and small intestine (3/10). Substantial liquid content, mainly hemorrhagic, was observed in all animals. The most characteristic microscopic lesion was mucosa necrosis, which is often accompanied by fibrin deposition, followed by necrosis of follicular centers and vascular changes. Bacterial isolation revealed seven isolates. Five were serotyped, and the serovars Typhimurium and Anatum were associated with two cases each, while Muenster was associated with a case whose lesion pattern varied. Immunohistochemical staining was positive in all cases. All diagnoses were based on the clinical history, macroscopic and histological lesions, and the bacterial isolation and/or immunostaining associated with histological lesions.     

10种鸟消化系统的比较研究

为了弄清鸟类消化系统形态结构与食性的关系,2005年3~7月对陇东学院和西峰市郊10种野生鸟的消化系统进行了解剖观察。结果表明,鸟的喙和舌因种类、食性和采食方式不同有很大的差异,鸟类消化道的形态特征与其食性密切相关:大白鹭的消化管最长,是体长的2.59倍,斑鸠、石鸡、环颈雉的消化管次之,是体长的2.39~2.45倍,白头鹎、北红尾鸲、白脊鸟令鸟、大山雀、椋鸟和灰伯劳的消化管最短,是体长的0.88~1.51倍;环颈雉、石鸡的嗉囊、肌胃和盲肠均非常发达,白头鹎、北红尾鸲、白脊鸟令鸟、大山雀、灰椋鸟、灰伯劳的嗉囊、肌胃、盲肠退化、消失。对其嗉囊、肌胃内容物剖检发现,大白鹭为肉食性鸟类,斑鸠、环颈雉、石鸡为植食性鸟类,白头鹎为杂食性鸟类,北红尾鸲、大山雀、白脊鸟令鸟、灰椋鸟、灰伯劳为食虫性鸟类。     

Johne's Disease (Paratuberculosis) in Goats: A Report of Eight Cases in Quebec

Johne's disease (paratuberculosis) is reported in eight goats. Clinical signs were mainly those of a chronic wasting disease which lead to emaciation, severe weakness, prostration and death. Soft pasty stool and/or profuse diarrhea were observed only after several weeks of illness, in the terminal stages of the disease, in six of the eight goats. Gross lesions were characterized by emaciation and mesenteric lymphadenopathy with more or less extensive areas of caseous necrosis and calcification. Gross lesions in the intestinal tract were limited to a mild thickening and corrugation of the mucosa of the distal small intestine, cecum and proximal parts of the colon in three of the affected animals. Caseous necrosis of Peyer's patches and ulceration were observed in two goats when small tuberculoid nodules were present in the liver of another one. Histologically, the intestinal lesions were characterized by accumulations of large foamy or vacuolated macrophages in the intestinal mucosa. Lesions were usually mild and multifocal in the proximal and middle parts of the small intestine, more diffuse and severe in the distal jejunum, ileum and proximal parts of the colon. Several of the macrophages infiltrated in the intestinal mucosa and mesenteric lymph nodes were packed with acid fast bacilli. Observations made on these animals stress the importance of a careful histological examination of the intestines and mesenteric lymph nodes of adult goats submitted to necropsy because of a chronic wasting disease.     

Isoenzymes of equine alkaline phosphatase

Alkaline phosphatase isoenzymes from small intestine, cecum, large colon, small colon, liver, kidney, leukocytes, and serum from ten clinically normal horses were defined by their sensitivities to L-phenylalanine, L-homoarginine, levamisole and heat, and by polyacrylamide gel disc electrophoresis. Readily identifiable isoenzymes occurred in small intestine, granulocytes, kidney, cecum, and large and small colon. By contrast, alkaline phosphatases from liver, lymphocytes, and serum could not be discriminated by this group of tests.     

Morphological Analysis of the Tongue and the Digestive Tube of Saffron Finch (Sicalis flaveola brasiliensis,LINNAUES 1766) Apprehended by CETAS/IBAMA‐PB

The saffron finch (Sicalis flaveola brasiliensis) is a Passeriforme of the Brazilian wildlife. There are scarcely any morphological studies on it, although it is frequently trafficked for its birdsong abilities. Its peculiarities, such as territorialism and developed syrinx that provides outstanding song, draw attention towards its domestication. Thus, this study aimed to morphologically describe the tongue and digestive tube organs of this species to furnish subsidies for nutritional, clinical and conservation studies. Forty‐one birds from the Wild Animal Screening Center (CETAS)/Brazilian Institute of Environment (IBAMA)/city of Cabedelo, state of Paraíba (PB) were used. Samples were collected, identified and sent to standard light microscopy; samples of proventriculus and gizzard were sent to Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). The samples showed stratification similar to that of other domestic and wild birds, confirmed in the scanning electron microscopy; however, they differed in the absence of dermal papillae in the tongue, lack of ingluvial glands and lack of muscular mucosa and sub‐mucosa in the large intestine.     

Growth and development of chicks of two species of partridge: the grey partridge (Perdix perdix) and the chukar (Alectoris chukar)

1. In two partridge species, the grey partridge (Perdix perdix) and chukar (Alectoris chukar), from hatching up to 120?d, the growth rate and development of body mass, wing, tarsus, and bill length were measured and fitted by Gompertz equations.

2. As a typical precocial species, partridges hatched with relatively well developed legs and bills, and wing growth followed a gradual development of thermoregulation.

3. Gompertz growth constants for body mass growth were 0·039 and 0·038 for grey partridges and chukars, respectively.

4. The allometric relationship between tarsus length and body mass followed a geometric similarity (1/3 power) in both grey partridges and chukars.     

年龄差异对家兔CD4+T细胞在胃肠分布的影响

为深入了解家兔消化道中CD4⁺T细胞的组织学定位以及在消化道不同解剖学部位的数量变化,本试验运用免疫组织化学方法,探讨了家兔胃(胃底腺区、幽门腺区)和小肠及大肠不同解剖学部位中的CD4⁺T细胞定位特点和数量变化规律。结果表明,在胃肠中,CD4⁺T细胞主要分布于固有层。胃底腺区阳性细胞数目要明显比幽门腺区少。小肠、大肠各段的阳性细胞分布数量未见明显差异,由十二指肠到回肠表现为小幅度递增,由盲肠到直肠表现为小幅度递减。胃肠中CD4⁺T细胞在各部位的数量随年龄增长表现出先增后减的变化趋势,老年组和幼年组CD4⁺T细胞数量在大肠中未见明显差异。结果提示,CD4⁺T细胞在青年家兔胃肠中的分布最为丰富。     

Gross Anatomical Features of the Gastrointestinal Tract (GIT) of Blue‐and‐Yellow Macaws (Ara ararauna) – Oesophagus to Cloaca

Morphological studies of the gastrointestinal tract of blue‐and‐yellow macaws (Ara ararauna) are scarce. In view of the paucity of information regarding the digestive tract of macaws, this study aims to describe the gross anatomical features (oesophagus to cloaca) as part of a broad study of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) of these birds. Three animals (two males and one female) adult macaws were anatomically dissected from the oropharynx to the cloaca to expose the GIT. The oesophagus was identified as a muscle‐membranous tube continuous with the crop, which was intimately attached to the skin. The internal longitudinal folds of the cervical oesophagus were sparser cranial to the crop and less evident compared to the portion caudal to the crop. The duodenum began in the pylorus and was grey‐coloured exhibiting a large lumen. The jejunum was formed by loops in a spiral‐fashion model supported by mesojejunum. The ileum was also composed by small loops and was continuous with the colo‐rectum forming the large intestine, because the caeca were absent. The large intestine was short, median in position, suspended in the dorsal wall of the abdominal cavity by mesentery and ended in the cloaca. The GIT was similar to the basic patterns in birds, in general, and also presented new unreported morphological data that might be important when studying nutrition and health of the macaws.     

Histological characterization of umbilical cord in alpaca (Vicugna pacos)

The histomorphometric features of umbilical cord constituents in seven foetuses of alpaca (Vicugna pacos) from Cerro de Pasco, Department, Peru, were determined. Sections of 2–5 cm of umbilical cord were fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin and processed for light microscopy. Standard histological slides stained with haematoxylin and eosin, Masson's trichrome and Van Gieson's trichrome were obtained. Histologically, common features of umbilical artery and vein were observed as well as mucous connective tissue, some cell features that compound this tissue constituted by cells presented features of myofibroblasts. Among most important findings that were observed, the lumen of umbilical vein was obliterated into star‐shaped form with the thinner umbilical artery wall; the smooth muscles and fibroblast were comparatively more in number in umbilical artery than that of umbilical vein, and the tunica media was larger in dimension than the tunica adventitia in umbilical vein. Conclusively, this histological study features an observation of the umbilical cord of alpaca foetuses and shows the similarity between them and those of other mammal species, including dromedaries and South American camelids.