Mycoplasma gallisepticum in house finches (Carpodacus mexicanus) and other wild birds associated with poultry production facilities.

Since 1994, an epidemic of conjunctivitis caused by Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) has spread throughout the eastern population of house finches (Carpodacus mexicanus). The adaptation of MG to a free-flying avian species presents potential problems for the control of mycoplasmosis in commercial poultry. To evaluate risks associated with this emerging problem, a field survey was conducted to assess prevalence of MG infection in house finches and other passerine birds associated with poultry farms. Between November 1997 and March 1999, 1058 birds were captured by mist net or trap at 17 farms and at 10 feeder stations in northeast Georgia. Birds were bled and screened by serum plate agglutination (SPA) for antibodies to MG. Birds with negative or weak positive SPA results were released at capture sites, and those with strong positive SPA reactions were kept for further evaluation. Necropsies were performed on selected house finches and individuals of 11 other passerine species, and samples were collected for MG testing by culture, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), hemagglutination inhibition, and histopathology. Testing revealed 19.1% of 671 birds caught at farms and 11.6% of 387 birds caught at feeder sites were SPA positive for MG. Three house finches captured on farms were positive for MG by culture and PCR, whereas three from feeder sites were positive only by PCR. No MG isolates were made from tufted titmice (Baeolophus bicolor), but 40% were positive by PCR. Individuals from 10 additional species were SPA positive only. Results suggest that MG persists at low levels in house finches in northeast Georgia and that tufted titmice may be nonclinical carriers of MG or a related mycoplasma. Positive SPA reactions in other species may be caused by nonspecific reactions or contact exposure. Current biosecurity recommendations should be sufficient to minimize risks of transmission between wild and domestic birds.     

Isolation,molecular identification,and phylogenetic evaluation of Cryptococcus neoformans isolated from pigeon lofts,Psittaciformes, and Passeriformes in Ahvaz,Iran

Cryptococcus neoformans, the main pathogen in immunocompromised patients, is a ubiquitous free-living fungus that can be isolated from avian excreta, soils, and plant material. This study was carried out to determine the infection rate of pigeon lofts, Passeriformes, and Psittaciformes in Ahvaz, the capital of Khuzestan province in Iran and to determine varieties of Cryptococcus neoformans (C. neoformans). The 80 samples were collected from pigeon lofts. Also, 163 feces of captive birds (Passeriformes and Psittaciformes) which kept in Ahvaz pet shops, and the 70 cloacal swabs of pet birds (Passeriformes and psittaciformes) referring to the department of avian medicine (the faculty of veterinary medicine of Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz) were analyzed. The samples were directly inoculated on niger seed agar (NSA) and also enriched in brain heart infusion broth and then inoculated on NSA. Dark brown colonies suspected to C. neoformans subcultured on saborouds dextrose agar and pure cultures subjected to molecular (polymerase chain reaction (PCR)) diagnosis. For detection of C. neoformans, primer sets that targeting the CNLAC1 gene were selected and nested PCR was conducted. For identification of C. neoformans varieties, a primer set targeting the STR1 gene was selected. For more accurate confirmation, the purified PCR products of some isolates were also sequenced, and based on the gene sequences, all of the isolates belonged to C. neoformans variety grubii (var. grubii)(serotype A). Totally 16 out of 80 pigeon samples (20%) were contaminated with C. neoformans. The results in pigeons disclosed a 98.64% identity when compared with other strains of C. neoformans (CN1525, T4, and T1) which were previously deposited in GenBank from Italy and Thailand. Also, 21 out of 233 samples from Psittaciformes (9.01%) were contaminated with C. neoformans. The results in Psittaciformes disclosed a 99.7% identity when compared with other strains of C. neoformans (TIMM1313, IFM5882, CN1525, etc.) which were previously deposited in GenBank from Japan and Italy, etc. In the present study, the samples belonging to the passerine order were free of C. neoformans infection. According to the results, C. neoformans is prevalent in pigeon flocks and pet birds including Psittaciformes in the Ahvaz area, and should be considered by pigeon and captive bird breeders, veterinarians, and public health organizations in Ahvaz. The cryptococcus species isolated from captive birds and pigeons could be potential pathogens in humans.     

Long-term Study of Chlamydophilosis in Slovenia

Immune reactivity for Chlamydophila (C.) psittaci in Slovenia was monitored in parrots, canaries, finches and nine species of recently captured free-living birds (house sparrows, Eurasian goldfinches, tree sparrows, chaffinches, European greenfinches, European serines, Eurasian siskins, Eurasian linnets and Eurasian bullfinches) in the period from 1991 to 2001. In subsequent years, specific IgG antibodies were found using immunofluorescence in parrots (0.7– 53.6%), canaries (0.0–3.5%), finches (0.0–5.7%) and in captured free-living birds (33.3% of Eurasian goldfinches in 1994). An experimental infection with C. psittaci was performed in order to study clinical signs and pathological changes in canaries and finches. The C. psittaci strain used for experimental infection was isolated from a cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus). Chlamydial DNA was extracted from clinical material followed by RFLP-PCR analysis. Infection of canaries and finches was confirmed in organ smears by direct immunofluorescence and a modified Gimenez staining method. In addition, serological tests of indirect immunofluorescence and complement fixation were applied. However, in spite of positive immunological reaction there were no clinical signs three weeks after infection. The present study includes results of a serological survey of persons belonging to the most important risk groups (breeders, pet shopkeepers and veterinarians). The results of microimmunofluorescence to identify the presence of specific antibodies and correlation between appearance of infection in birds and important risk groups are presented. Out of 143 persons belonging to the high-risk group we found 10 (7%) persons who were immunologically positive. Testing of two successive samples was used to demonstrate an increase in IgG and IgA titres in human sera. However, IgM, which is indicative of acute infection, could not be detected.     

A survey to detect subclinical polyomavirus infections of captive psittacine birds in Germany

Infections of avian polyomavirus (APV) are known to cause fatal disease in a wide range of psittacine and non-psittacine birds. Here, we present a survey to investigate the existence of subpopulation of persistent or subclinically infected parrots inside the population of captive psittacine birds in Germany. DNA was isolated from feathers of 85 symptom-free birds from 20 different genera (all psittaciformes) taken from 30 different breeders from all over Germany. The presence of APV was analysed by performing polymerase chain reaction assays (PCR). APV was detected in none of the samples, indicating that the existence of a subpopulation of captive psittacine birds having a persistent APV infection in Germany seems to be relatively low.     

CHLAMYDIA AVIUM DETECTION FROM A RING-NECKED PARAKEET (PSITTACULA KRAMERI) IN FRANCE

The crossing of host species barriers, through the spreading populations of introduced pet animals that become established in the wild, sets the stage for zoonotic pathogen (re)emergence. A literature review on pathogens that are hosted by the ring-necked parakeet (Psittacula krameri), a worldwide introduced pet, highlighted local infections of captive birds by chlamydial agents with high sanitary risk for human health in its introduced range. We searched for these pathogens through cloacal swabs collected from 85 individuals in an invasive population established in the suburban areas of Paris (Ile-de-France) from 5 localities during the winter seasons between 2011 and 2014. Based on quantitative PCR analysis, Chlamydiaceae shedding was detected at too low levels for species identification in 5 birds, but 1 parakeet (found dead) was positive for Chlamydiaceae typed as Chlamydia avium. The only known hosts recorded for C. avium in Europe are feral pigeons (Columba livia) and captive psittacines. This result raises the question of the sanitary risks associated with new pathogen transmission from exotic pets released in the wild, which could locally affect birds and potentially people who feed birds.     

Velogenic Newcastle Disease Virus in Captive Wild Birds

Newcastle disease virus (NDV) was isolated from the faeces of seven different species of clinically healthy captive wild birds. All seven NDV isolates were characterized as velogenic, based on the mean death time in embryonated hens' eggs and the intracerebral pathogenicity index in day-old chicks. Three of the isolates were placed in group C₁ based on the reactions with monoclonal antibodies. The role of captive wild birds in the epidemiology of Newcastle disease is briefly discussed.     

First molecular identification and subtype distribution of Blastocystis sp. isolated from hooded crows (Corvus cornix) and pigeons (Columba livia) in Tehran Province,Iran

Blastocystis is a common intestinal parasite among humans and animals such as non-human primates, pigs, cattle, birds, amphibians, and less frequently, rats, reptiles and insects. Since Blastocystis is a widely transmissible parasite between humans and mammals or birds, it is prominent to determine whether newly secluded non-human isolates are zoonotic. There are no comprehensive studies in Iran assessing the prevalence and molecular identification of Blastocystis infection in birds, especially in pigeons and crows. So, the aim of this study was to identify Blastocystis subtypes (STs) in crows and pigeons in Tehran province, Iran, using Nested PCR-RFLP and sequencing. Overall, 300 Blastocystis isolates from birds (156 pigeons and 144 crows) were subtyped by PCR, and the homology among isolates was then confirmed by RFLP analysis of the 18S rRNA gene. The prevalence of Blastocystis infection was detected 42.9% in pigeons and 44.4% in crows. All positive pigeons were owned by ST13 (100%). Among crows, 46 samples (71.8%) like pigeons were ST13, and 13 samples (20.3%) were ST14. Five samples (7.9%) remained unknown. This study was the first report of ST13 and ST14 of Blastocystis from birds. In the present study, our data revealed a high prevalence of Blastocystis sp. in pigeon’s and crow’s samples and the isolates from these birds were classified into two genetically distinct STs. Therefore, birds appear to be infected with various STs. It is important to determine the phylogenetic relationships between unknown STs from these birds and the multiple STs of Blastocystis.     

Tetracycline Resistance of Enterobacteriaceae Isolated From Feces of Synanthropic Birds

Tetracycline is a broad-spectrum antibiotic which is commonly used in humans and animals for treatment of bacterial infections. Therefore, tetracycline-resistant Enterobacteriaceae species found in the nature, humans, and animals are usually considered a serious health concern. The feces of birds that live with humans may be a source for of these antibiotic resistant bacteria. For this reason, presence of tetracycline-resistant Enterobacteriaceae in bird droppings collected from 18 different breeders and pet shops fed in Istanbul was investigated by cultural and molecular methods in terms of the presence of that a/b gene. In addition, susceptibilities of isolates to various antibiotics were also determined. The current study reported that Enterobacter cloacae, Citrobacter freundi, Escherichia coli, Edwardsiella spp., Enterobacter spp., Escherichia vulneris, Klebsiella pneumonia, Pantoea agglomerans, Proteus mirabilis, Pantoe spp., Pseudomonas spp., Serratia marcescens, Salmonella spp., Shigella spp. were isolated from the samples. Ninety-seven of the isolates (97/150) were resistant to tetracycline (65.2%). In addition, the isolates were resistant to other antibiotic medications and 114 of them (58%) evaluated as multi drug resistant. The tet (A) and tet (B) genes were found in bacteria isolated from synantrophic birds’ feces as 46.6% and 8%, respectively. Although working conditions are limited, the results obtained provide baseline information regarding antibiotic resistance to Enterocatericeae isolates obtained from captive birds’ feces. Thus, the results of the present study emphasize the necessity of genotypic resistance research in future studies to help maintain antibiotic treatment efficacy for Enterocatericeae infections.     

First detection of Chlamydia psittaci from a wild native passerine bird in New Zealand

AIMS: To undertake disease surveillance for Chlamydia psittaci in native birds as part of a pilot study to examine pathogen diversity on Hauturu-o-Toi/Little Barrier Island. To retrospectively review the Massey University post-mortem database to determine previous cases of avian chlamydiosis in New Zealand.

METHODS:Mistnetting of forest birds was conducted across an elevational gradient on Hauturu-o-Toi/Little Barrier Island. Minitip culture swabs were used to collect cloacal samples from native birds. These swabs were screened for Chlamydia family DNA using two PCR methods. Positive results were sequenced. A retrospective review of the Massey University post-mortem database of all avian cases from 1990 to 2011 was conducted.

RESULTS:Ten native birds including four bellbirds (Anthornis melanura), three rifleman (Acanthisitta chloris), two hihi (Notiomyces cincta), and one whitehead (Mohoua albicilla) were sampled and one otherwise healthy female hihi was positive by both PCR screening methods for Chlamydophila. Sequencing confirmed 99–100% genetic similarity to C. psittaci. A retrospective review of the Massey University post-mortem database revealed no previous diagnoses of avian chlamydiosis in wild native New Zealand birds although it has been detected in captive parrots, and wild and captive exotic pigeons.

CONCLUSIONS:This is the first report of the detection of C. psittaci from a wild native bird in New Zealand. The bird was a Passeriforme from an endangered species that was captured free-living on Little Barrier Island. The incidence of avian chlamydiosis in native birds in New Zealand appears to be very low, based on the retrospective review of the post-mortem database.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE: It is unlikely that avian chlamydiosis is a significant problem for hihi population health. The detection of this organism has greater significance for other more susceptible species on Little Barrier Island and for human health, particularly for conservation workers involved in wildlife translocations. It further suggests that passerine birds may be a reservoir for C. psittaci in New Zealand ecosystems.     

Isolation of Mycoplasma meleagridis from Free‐ranging Birds of Prey in Germany

In this study tracheal swabs and air sac biopsies of 68 raptors of different species that were found injured or debilitated in Germany were investigated for the occurrence of mycoplasmas. Mycoplasma meleagridis, Mycoplasma falconis, Mycoplasma buteonis, Mycoplasma gypis and five mycoplasma isolates not identified so far could be isolated from 32 (47 %) birds. Mycoplasma meleagridis could be detected in five birds. These birds did not show clinical signs or histopathological alterations in air sac biopsies related to the infection.     

Isolation of avian bornaviruses from psittacine birds using QT6 quail cells in Japan

Avian bornaviruses (ABVs) were recently discovered as the causative agents of proventricular dilatation disease (PDD). Although molecular epidemiological studies revealed that ABVs exist in Japan, no Japanese isolate has been reported thus far. In this study, we isolated four strains of Psittaciform 1 bornavirus from psittacine birds affected by PDD using QT6 quail cells. To our knowledge, this is the first report to isolate ABVs in Japan and to show that QT6 cells are available for ABV isolation. These isolates and QT6 cells would be powerful tools for elucidating the fundamental biology and pathogenicity of ABVs.     

Characterization of mycoplasma gallisepticum infection in captive house finches (Carpodacus mexicanus) in 1998

Since 1995, the epidemic of mycoplasmal conjunctivitis in eastern house finches has affected the Auburn, AL, house finch population. To better characterize the current status of this host-parasite interaction, we established a captive flock of 38 seronegative, healthy finches in fall 1998. After a minimum quarantine period of 4 wk, two Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG)-infected house finches were introduced into this flock. Over a 12-wk period, the flock was captured every 2 wk and each bird was observed for conjunctivitis. Blood and choanal swabs were collected from each bird for serologic analysis and for the detection of MG by polymerase chain reaction. The infection spread rapidly through the flock just as it had in a similar study performed in 1996 at the height of the epidemic. Unlike the earlier study in which birds remained chronically infected, most of the birds in our study recovered rapidly, and only three of the birds died during the study. Two patterns of host response to infection with MG were observed. Twenty-seven birds (73%) experienced an acute conjunctivitis that resolved, and the birds appeared to clear the infection. Ten birds (27%) suffered prolonged clinical disease, and MG could be detected in these birds intermittently throughout the experiment. These results, in conjunction with our surveys of MG in the wild population, suggest an evolving host-parasite interaction.     

Incidence of Salmonellae in Captive and Wild Free‐Living Raptorial Birds in Central Spain

A total of 595 faecal samples from raptorial birds, either captive or free‐living, residing in GREFA Wildlife Hospital were bacteriologically examined using various selective media and an Automated Diagnostic Assay System for Salmonella detection. Serotype and phage type of the strains identified as Salmonella was determined. In the captive group, of the 285 samples examined, 21 (7.36%) were positive for Salmonella. Serotyping revealed that most of the individuals were infected by Salmonella serotype Havana. This result suggested that there could be a source of contamination in the Hospital although it could not be established. In the wild free‐living group, over 310 samples examined (4.19%) were positive for Salmonella. The Salmonella isolates showed a major variety of serotypes: Enteritidis, Adelaide, Brandenburg, Newport, Typhimurium, Hadar, Saintpaul and Virchow. Most of them are similar to those commonly described in isolates from human and domestic animals. These results indicate that wild birds could be involved in the dissemination of Salmonella in humans or domestic animals or vice versa.     

An outbreak of mycobacteriosis in Gouldian finches caused by Mycobacterium peregrinum.

An outbreak of mycobacteriosis was detected in an aviary containing Gouldian finches (Erythrura gouldiae) and golden shouldered parrots (Psephotus chrysopterygius). Affected birds developed granulomatous lesions, usually of the liver and intestine. Mycobacterium peregrinum, a species of the Mycobacterium fortuitum group, was cultured on pooled samples of intestinal tract from 31 euthanized finches. These rapid-growing mycobacteria are saprophytic organisms that are generally not associated with clinical disease in immunocomponenet hosts. This is the first report of mycobacteriosis in finches implicating M peregrinum as a causative agent.     

Cecal bacterial communities in wild Japanese rock ptarmigans and captive Svalbard rock ptarmigans

Preservation of indigenous gastrointestinal microbiota is deemed to be critical for successful captive breeding of endangered wild animals, yet its biology is poorly understood. Here, we investigated cecal bacterial communities in wild Japanese rock ptarmigans (Lagopus muta japonica) and compared them with those in Svalbard rock ptarmigans (L. m. hyperborea) in captivity. Ultra-deep sequencing of 16S rRNA gene indicated that the community structure of cecal microbiota in wild rock ptarmigans was remarkably different from that in captive Svalbard rock ptarmigans. Fundamental differences between bacterial communities in the two groups of birds were detected at the phylum level. Firmicutes, Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes and Synergistetes were the major phyla detected in wild Japanese rock ptarmigans, whereas Firmicutes alone occupied more than 80% of abundance in captive Svalbard rock ptarmigans. Furthermore, unclassified genera of Coriobacteriaceae, Synergistaceae, Bacteroidaceae, Actinomycetaceae, Veillonellaceae and Clostridiales were the major taxa detected in wild individuals, whereas in zoo-reared birds, major genera were Ruminococcus, Blautia, Faecalibacterium and Akkermansia. Zoo-reared birds seemed to lack almost all rock ptarmigan-specific bacteria in their intestine, which may explain the relatively high rate of pathogenic infections affecting them. We show evidence that preservation and reconstitution of indigenous cecal microflora are critical for successful ex situ conservation and future re-introduction plan for the Japanese rock ptarmigan.     

Species-specific polymerase chain reactions for the detection of Mycoplasma buteonis, Mycoplasma falconis, Mycoplasma gypis, and Mycoplasma corogypsi in captive birds of prey

Mycoplasmas are pathogens of different avian species, but the role of Mycoplasma in raptors is not yet completely determined. As Mycoplasma isolation and identification present several difficulties, species-specific polymerase chain reactions (PCRs) for the detection of mycoplasmas found in birds of prey (Mycoplasma buteonis, Mycoplasma corogypsi, Mycoplasma falconis, and Mycoplasma gypis) were established. The specificity of the PCR methods were investigated using known avian Mycoplasma reference strains and isolates as well as related bacteria and was found to be specific. Amplificons obtained with these PCRs from field samples showed no false-positive results in restriction enzyme analysis and sequencing. The sensitivities of the different PCR assays varied between 50 fg and 1 pg DNA. Twenty-five tracheal swabs from healthy captive birds of prey were investigated by culture and immunobinding assay as comparison to the PCRs. Mycoplasmal DNA was detected in 88% of the samples, with negative results only from vultures. Mycoplasma falconis and M. buteonis were regularly found in falcons, and M. gypis was found in a common buzzard. Mycoplasma corogypsi was not demonstrated. Several isolates could not be differentiated using an immunobinding assay as well as the described PCR methods.     

Comparison of learning ability and memory retention in altricial (Bengalese finch,Lonchura striata var. domestica) and precocial (blue‐breasted quail,Coturnix chinensis) birds using a color discrimination task

The present study sought to assess the potential application of avian models with different developmental modes to studies on cognition and neuroscience. Six altricial Bengalese finches (Lonchura striata var. domestica), and eight precocial blue‐breasted quails (Coturnix chinensis) were presented with color discrimination tasks to compare their respective faculties for learning and memory retention within the context of the two developmental modes. Tasks consisted of presenting birds with discriminative cues in the form of colored feeder lids, and birds were considered to have learned a task when 80% of their attempts at selecting the correctly colored lid in two consecutive blocks of 10 trials were successful. All of the finches successfully performed the required experimental tasks, whereas only half of the quails were able to execute the same tasks. In the learning test, finches required significantly fewer trials than quails to learn the task (finches: 13.5 ± 9.14 trials, quails: 45.8 ± 4.35 trials, P < 0.05), with finches scoring significantly more correct responses than quails (finches: 98.3 ± 4.08%, quails: 85.0 ± 5.77% at the peak of the learning curve). In the memory retention tests, which were conducted 45 days after the learning test, finches retained the ability to discriminate between colors correctly (95.0 ± 4.47%), whereas quails did not retain any memory of the experimental procedure and so could not be tested. These results suggested that altricial and precocial birds both possess the faculty for learning and retaining discrimination‐type tasks, but that altricial birds perform better than precocial birds in both faculties. The present findings imply that developmental mode is an important consideration for assessing the suitability of bird species for particular experiments.     

Trichinella species circulating among wild and domestic animals in Romania

Trichinellosis is one of the most important zoonotic diseases in Romania. Even though the disease is a serious public health concern, only a limited number of Trichinella isolates have been identified at the species level; in the past, all larvae were assumed to be Trichinella spiralis. The present study was conducted to identify Trichinella spp. circulating among wild and domestic animals in Romania, using PCR-based methods. Trichinella spp. larvae originating from 54 wild and 23 domestic mammals were examined. No Trichinella spp. larvae were detected in muscle samples of 182 birds. T. spiralis and Trichinella britovi were the only two species identified in the 40 isolates that yielded a positive PCR result. Overall, T. britovi was more prevalent (n = 26; 65%) than T. spiralis (n = 14; 35%). T. spiralis was the predominant species found in domestic animals (n = 9; 75%), while T. britovi was more prevalent in wildlife (n = 24; 86%). No mixed infections were found. The highest prevalence of Trichinella infection was detected in wolves (11/35; 31%), in European wild cats (4/28; 14%), and in red foxes (5/71; 7%). The distribution of Trichinella spp. in Romania does not show a species-specific clustering; both of the two species found were present over the entire range of counties studied.     

Multidrug-Resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa Isolates From Captive Reptiles

Pseudomonas aeruginosa represents an opportunistic pathogen for animals and humans that is often associated with high disease morbidity and, at times, mortality. Captive reptiles have been shown to be reservoirs of P. aeruginosa strains that can be sources of exposure to humans that come in contact with these animals. In this study, the prevalence of P. aeruginosa among subclinical captive reptile species and the antimicrobial sensitivity of bacterial isolates were investigated. Sixty-five oral swabs were collected from captive reptiles belonging to 15 different species in which no overt signs of disease were evident. From this group of animals, 46 (70.8%) isolates were identified as P. aeruginosa. All of the P. aeruginosa strains were shown to have a wide range of antibiotic resistance. At present, there is a paucity of data regarding the prevalence of P. aeruginosa in various reptile species; therefore, continued scientific investigations are indicated to determine the significance of P. aeruginosa infection as it relates to captive reptile species.