不同种植年限对特殊药材土壤化学性质和微生物多样性的影响

以不同种植年限特殊药材根际土壤为材料,采用IlluminaNovaSeq高通量测序法和常规分析方法,分析了种植年限(0 a, 1 a, 4 a, 24 a)对根际土壤化学性质及微生物群落多样性的影响。结果表明：连续种植24 a后,土壤电导率、硝态氮含量显著高于其他种植年限。特殊药材连作对土壤细菌α-多样性指数均无显著影响,但土壤细菌丰富度和多样性减少;连续种植24 a真菌α-多样性指数中ACE指数、Chao1指数显著高于种植1 a,真菌丰富度和多样性增加。细菌群落Proteobacteria(变形菌门)、Acidobacteria(酸杆菌门)、Actinobacteria(放线菌门)为优势菌门,Sphingomonas(鞘氨醇单胞菌属)、Xanthomonadaceae(黄单胞菌科)相对丰度随着种植年限增加呈明显上升趋势,未知菌属RB41、Lysobacter(溶杆菌属)相对丰度呈下降趋势。土壤真菌群落Mortierellomycota(被孢霉门)、Ascomycota(子囊菌门)、Basidiomycota(担子菌门)为优势菌门,Mortierella(被孢霉属)相对丰度随种植年限增...     

胡麻-小麦轮作更替土壤的细菌群落多样性分析

采集胡麻-小麦轮作更替土壤,分别为第一年胡麻种植土壤(TC1)、第二年小麦轮作土壤(TR)和第三年胡麻种植土壤(TC2),利用高通量测序技术对不同土壤细菌群落进行测定,旨在揭示胡麻-小麦轮作更替对土壤细菌群落结构和多样性的影响。结果表明,TC2根际土壤样本细菌OTU数目最多,为1778条,细菌群落丰度指数(Chao指数1700.02和Ace指数1689.03)最低,而细菌群落多样性指数中,shannon指数表现为TC1(6.51)TR(6.42)TC2(6.21),simpson指数表现为TC2(0.0088)TR(0.0049)TC1(0.0030),即随着更替年限而降低。3种不同土壤样本内共获得细菌33门,且优势菌门(相对丰度0.01)均为变形菌门(Proteobacteria)、酸杆菌门(Acidobacteria)、放线菌门(Actinobacteria)和绿湾菌门(Chloroflexi)等11个菌门,各优势菌门在各处理中所占的丰度存在差异。随着种植更替,变形菌门(TC1 31.65%, TR 24.52%, TC2 28.53%)和芽单胞菌门(TC1 8.04%, TR 5.41%, TC2 6.01%)丰度先降低再升高,酸杆菌门(TC1 19.36%, TR 26.13%, TC2 11.18%)和绿湾菌门(TC1 9.69%, TR 12.68%, TC2 10.53%)丰度先增加后降低,放线菌门(TC1 12.14%, TR 13.79%, TC2 22.82%)丰度逐渐增加。细菌群落β多样性分析显示,轮作使土壤细菌的群落结构与TC1保持较小差异,而后续胡麻种植使其发生较大变化。通过Tax4Fun法在更替土壤中检测到细胞新陈代谢、遗传信息加工和环境信息处理等基因功能。大部分功能基因在TR的丰度与TC1相近。这些结果说明,小麦轮作能降低土壤细菌多样性和细菌群落结构组成的改变程度,从而利于下茬胡麻的种植。     

不同连作年限硒砂瓜土壤细菌群落结构特征

应用高通量测序技术对宁夏中卫地区不同连作年限硒砂瓜土壤细菌群落结构和多样性进行研究,旨在揭示不同连作年限对硒砂瓜土壤细菌群落结构的影响。结果表明:随着连作时间的增加,细菌多样性指数和丰富度指数逐渐增加。从5份不同连作年限硒砂瓜土壤样本中共获得39门、98纲和620属的细菌;优势门为放线菌门(Actinobacteria)、变形菌门(Proteobacteria)、绿弯菌门(Chloroflexi)、酸杆菌门(Acidobacteria);随着连作时间的增加,放线菌门、酸酐菌门丰度先增加后降低,变形菌门丰度逐渐降低,绿弯菌门丰度呈先降低后增加又降低现象;优势纲分别为放线菌纲(Actinobacteria)、酸杆菌纲(Acidobacteria)、α-变形菌纲(Alphaproteobacteria)、芽单胞菌纲(Gmmatimonadetes)、杆菌纲(Bacilli)、热原体纲(Themomicrobia)、γ-变形菌纲(Gammaproteobacteria)、β-变形菌纲(Betaproteobacteria);优势目为norank_c_Acidobacteria、芽孢杆菌目(Bacillales)、芽单胞菌目(Gemmatimonadales)、根瘤菌目(Rhizobiales)。RDA分析表明,有机质、速效磷是硒砂瓜连作土壤细菌群落组成的主要影响因子。研究表明,引起硒砂瓜连作障碍发生主要因素不是由于土壤理化性质变化引起的,而是随着连作时间的增加,放线菌门、变形菌门、绿弯菌门、酸杆菌门、厚壁菌门等有益微生物丰度下降造成的。     

黄土高原马铃薯不同连作年限土壤 理化性质及微生物特性

以黄土高原旱作区马铃薯不同连作年限土壤为研究对象，采用空间代替时间序列方法，对撂荒（CK₁）、小麦/豌豆/马铃薯轮作（CK₂）、连作2 a、连作4 a和连作6 a等不同连作年限的土壤容重、结构分维、总有机碳、酶活性与微生物数量及变化规律进行研究。结果表明：(1）不同处理土壤容重差异显著，连作6 a土壤容重最小；(2）连作可以改变土壤中不同粒级团聚体的比例，各处理中＞4 mm粒径的土壤含量最高；(3）马铃薯长期连作显著降低土壤有机碳含量，连作6 a土壤总有机碳含量较撂荒降低14.27%； (4）马铃薯主要生育期内土壤转化酶、过氧化氢酶变化动态呈“S”型曲线，脲酶呈“M”型变化趋势，3种酶活性与土壤肥力因子均呈极显著正相关，与土壤容重呈极显著负相关；(5）细菌是连作土壤中优势菌，真菌和放线菌也占一定比重；细菌、真菌和放线菌数量在0～10 cm土层显著高于10～20 cm土层；马铃薯长期连作显著降低土壤微生物数量，群落结构随连作年限明显改变。     

轮作小麦消减胡麻连作障碍的效应研究

为探讨轮作小麦对胡麻连作障碍的消减作用,通过田间试验研究了轮作小麦对胡麻株高和产量的影响,并通过测定土壤酶活性和土壤水提液化感作用,探寻消减连作障碍的机制。结果表明:重茬种植胡麻导致连作障碍现象突出,表现为连作3 a时株高、出苗率、千粒重和单株产量分别降低14.0%、7.75%、33.8%和43.2%,而第二年轮作小麦可以消减连作障碍,使下茬胡麻株高和产量保持在胡麻连作1 a水平,分别为69.7 cm和1.43 g·株~(-1)。轮作小麦后土壤过氧化氢酶、脲酶和碱性磷酸酶活性分别为2.41 mL·g~(-1)·h~(-1)、2.32 mg·g~(-1)·d~(-1)和9.04 mg·g~(-1)·d~(-1),与连作1 a胡麻地土壤酶活性无显著性差异,但连作将使部分土壤酶活性发生较大变化,表现为连作2a后土壤过氧化氢酶、土壤脲酶、碱性磷酸酶的活性分别降低至2.16 mL·g~(-1)·h~(-1)、8.18 mg·g~(-1)·d~(-1)和2.01 mg·g~(-1)·d~(-1),表明轮作小麦可通过保持部分土壤酶活性消减连作障碍,从而利于下茬胡麻生长。与胡麻连作相比,轮作小麦使土壤水提液对胡麻种子萌发和幼苗生长的化感自毒作用减弱,并表现出综合化感效应为0.21%的促进作用,使发芽指数(46.0)、发芽势(92.0%)、活力指数(3.36)、根长(8.35 cm)及根重(23.17 mg)等指标与CK和TC1处理下无显著性差异,而连作加剧土壤水提液自毒作用,对胡麻种子萌发和幼苗生长的抑制作用增强,且综合化感效应随连作年限增加分别降低至-8.61%和-17.01%,表明轮作小麦可以通过影响土壤自毒作用消减胡麻连作障碍。综上所述,胡麻重茬种植将导致明显的连作障碍,合理轮作小麦有利于维持胡麻地土壤酶活性、降低土壤自毒作用,从而消减胡麻连作障碍的发生。     

种稻年限对盐渍化土壤理化性质和细菌群落多样性的影响

为了解盐渍化土壤长期种稻引起土壤微生物和理化性质的变化特征,选取了种植水稻0、1、6、12、21 a的田块,用旱地(种植玉米)土壤作对照,利用Illumina Hiseq高通量测序技术解析不同种稻年限土壤细菌群落结构的特征,并分析了土壤理化因子与细菌群落结构的关系。结果表明:变形菌门、拟杆菌门、放线菌门是所有样点土壤细菌群落的优势种类,其中,变形菌门占总量的36.39%～53.20%,γ-变形菌纲相对丰度在0 a种稻的土壤中显著高于其他样点(P0.05)。变形菌门相对丰度在种稻1 a的土壤中含量较高,达到45.26%;拟杆菌门的相对丰度在种稻12 a和21 a土壤中较高,分别为20.25%和20.44%;放线菌门相对丰度在0 a土壤中显著高于其他样点(P0.05),为17.90%。在属水平,布赫纳氏菌属是所有样点的优势属。α多样性指数结果显示:种稻12 a的土壤细菌群落多样性和丰富度都显著低于其他样点,分别低于对照17.06%、85.73%、82.88%。土壤理化性质测定结果表明:全氮和硝态氮在旱地土壤中含量最高;微生物碳和电导率在种稻12 a的土壤中最低,低于对照101.89%、23.25%;有机碳在21 a种稻土壤中含量最高,高于对照29.03%;pH值在21 a种稻土壤中最低,低于对照组1.05%。Pearson相关性分析表明:微生物量碳和土壤电导率对细菌多样性指数的影响显著。冗余分析结果表明,土壤电导率值、微生物碳和硝态氮是影响盐渍化稻作土壤细菌群落结构的主要因子。研究表明,随着种稻年限的延长土壤细菌群落和理化性质发生显著变化,土壤生境呈明显的改善趋势。     

连作对谷子土壤酶活性及养分的影响

为探明谷子连作对土壤环境的影响,分析不同连作年限对谷子土壤养分和酶活性的影响,本研究在4a不施肥定位试验的基础上,设置连作2 a(T1)、连作3 a(T2)、连作4 a(T3)和轮作(CK)4个处理,分别测定了土壤养分、土壤脲酶、碱性磷酸酶、蔗糖酶和过氧化氢酶活性及其变化。试验结果表明,与轮作(CK)相比,连作2 a(T1)、连作3 a(T2)和连作4 a(T3)分别减产6.9%、12.7%和35.6%,随着连作年限增加,减产幅度加大;连作土壤氮、磷含量降低,其中速效氮含量降低最为显著(P0.05),速效钾含量变化不显著(P0.05),土壤p H升高。连作条件下,土壤脲酶、碱性磷酸酶、蔗糖酶和过氧化氢酶活性均呈现逐年降低的趋势,且随着连作年限增加,降低越显著,连作4 a(T3)显著低于其它处理(P0.05)。     

不同连作年限棉田土壤理化性质及微生物区系变化规律研究

于2007年以不同连作年限棉田为研究对象，研究分析连作5 a、8 a、12 a年和15 a棉田土壤容重、土壤氮、磷、钾养分及微生物区系的变化规律，以揭示长期连作造成棉田减产的主要因素。研究结果表明：在棉农自主经营管理条件下，棉田土壤容重并未随着连作年限的增加呈现有规律的变化。随着连作年限的增加土壤速效磷、全氮、全钾含量均呈下降趋势，土壤有机质以及土壤速效钾含量则是连作8 a之后随着连作年限的增加呈下降趋势。随着连作年限的增加，棉田土壤微生物总量呈明显的下降趋势，连作8 a、12 a、15 a棉田的土壤微生物总数平均值分别比连作5 a的下降了40.1%、46.7%、52.4%，而且微生物菌群结构也发生了变化，总体表现为细菌和放线菌数量减少，真菌数量增加的发展态势。     

黑龙江大豆轮作和连作土壤细菌群落多样性比较

为研究大豆轮作和连作对土壤细菌群落多样性的影响,提取黑龙江大豆轮作和连作土壤微生物总DNA,采用细菌通用引物27F和1492R扩增了土壤细菌16S rDNA片段,构建了细菌16S rDNA克隆文库,并对文库中的细菌群落多样性进行了分析。通过16S rDNA序列同源性分析,发现76.5%克隆序列与环境中未培养细菌的16S rDNA序列有较高的相似性,仅有23.5%的克隆序列与GenBank数据库中可培养细菌有较高的相似性,表明黑龙江大豆田土壤中的多数细菌尚未培养。系统发育分析表明黑龙江土壤细菌分属于6大类群,其中变形菌Proteobacteria和酸杆菌Acidobacteria所占比例较大,另有少量厚壁菌Firmicutes、放线菌Actinobacteria、芽单胞菌Gemmatimonadetes和未分类的细菌。大豆轮作土壤细菌多样性更为丰富,并以变形菌为优势细菌类群;而大豆连作土壤细菌多样性有所减少,以酸杆菌为优势细菌类群。表明黑龙江大豆田土壤中细菌多样性十分丰富,其种植方式对土壤细菌群落结构影响较大。     

玛河流域不同连作年限棉田土壤质量分析及综合评价

以玛河流域不同连作年限(1、5、10、15、20 a和25 a)棉田土壤为研究对象,测定了土壤碱解氮、有机质、速效钾、速效磷、pH值、盐分及镉(Cr)、铬(Cd)、铅(Pb)、镍(Ni)、铜(Cu)、砷(As)共计12个指标,对比分析土壤养分特征和重金属含量,分别采用因子分析法和土壤质量综合评价指数法对不同连作年限棉田土壤质量状况进行定量评价并划分等级,采用Muller地质累积指数法评价棉田土壤重金属污染情况。结果表明:(1)pH值在开垦种植1 a和25 a连作时最高,均值为7.90,5、10 a连作时最小,pH值均值为7.75;土壤盐分含量由连作5 a的3.68 g·kg~(-1)逐年增加至连作25 a的3.87 g·kg~(-1);有机质含量在种植1 a时仅11.02 g·kg~(-1),随后缓慢增加,至连作10 a达19.97 g·kg~(-1),之后降低,25 a时降至1 a水平;速效钾含量变化趋势与有机质相似;全氮和速效磷从种植1 a开始逐年递增,连作25 a时达最大,全氮含量0.903 g·kg~(-1),速效磷含量55.1 mg·kg~(-1)。(2)土壤重金属Cr、Ni、Cu、Pb、As和Cd含量均随连作年限增加而增加,其中Cr、Ni和Cd在连作15 a时分别达93.87、33.18 mg·kg~(-1)和0.23 mg·kg~(-1),有重金属富集趋势;As在连作20 a和25 a分别为12.03 mg·kg~(-1)和13.53 mg·kg~(-1),为轻度污染;污染指数(I_(SHM))显示Pb在连作1～25 a均无污染(I_(SHM)0),Cu含量超标(I_(SHM)0)。(3)因子分析法得出,SQAV评分最高的是连作10 a(0.437),其次是5 a(0.247),1 a和25 a为负值(分别为-0.712和-1.253),不利于土壤质量提升;土壤综合质量指数评价法得出5 a和10 a棉田土壤质量为"高",土壤综合质量指数(SQI)分别为1.02和1.10,1 a和25 a为"低",SQI分别为0.63和0.61,土壤质量状况最差,15 a和20 a为"中"。两种评价方法得出的结论相似,说明本研究选取的评价方法合理,可以定性定量对不同连作年限棉田土壤质量进行评价。     

Richtlinien der Verbände des ökologischen Landbaus zum Vorratsschutz

Zusammenfassung Verbände des ökologischen Landbaus wie z. B. Bioland, Gäa, Demeter; Naturland, Ernte für das Leben oder Bio Suisse beschränken ihre Mitglieder bei der Wahl von Vorratsschutzmaßnahmen. Vorrang besitzen Maßnahmen zur Vermeidung von Schädlingen gegenüber Bekämpfungsmaßnahmen. Fallen müssen zur Befallsüberwachung eingesetzt werden, um einen Befall durch Vorratsschädlinge frühzeitig zu erkennen. Diese Maßnahmen sollen den weitgehenden Verzicht auf chemisch-synthetische Mittel ermöglichen. In diesem Beitrag werden die Empfehlungen der Verbände mit den derzeit verfügbaren chemischen Mitteln für den Vorratsschutz abgeglichen. Erfahrung in der praktischen Umsetzung von physikalischen und biologischen Verfahren werden diskutiert und Defizite bei der Befallsüberwachung und Bekämpfung beschrieben.     

Development of protocols for detection of Colletotrichum acutatum and monitoring of strawberry anthracnose using real-time PCR

Real-time PCR (TaqMan®) assays were developed for the specific detection and discrimination of Colletotrichum spp., C. acutatum and C. gloeosporioides causing anthracnose in strawberry using the most divergent area of the internal transcribed spacers (ITS1 and ITS2) and 5·8S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene region. The specificity of the new assays was tested using DNA from six species of Colletotrichum and nine fungal species commonly found associated with strawberry material, and additionally by comparing the sequences with those from databases using a blast search. The sequences only showed identity with homologous sequences from the desired target organisms. The new assays were 10–100 times more sensitive than conventional PCR methods previously published for the diagnosis of strawberry anthracnose. When real-time PCR was compared with ELISA methods, PCR improved the sensitivity of the identification by obtaining positive results for samples of strawberry plant material that tested negative with ELISA. The development of C. acutatum was monitored using artificially infected strawberry crowns from two strawberry cultivars (Camarosa and Ventana) and a real-time PCR assay specific for this species between January and June 2006. The amount of C. acutatum detected using real-time PCR varied significantly by month ( P  < 0·001), but not by cultivar ( P  = 0·394). The new assays were shown to be useful tools for rapid detection and identification of these pathogens and to allow rapid and accurate assessment of the casual agents of anthracnose in strawberry.     

A systematic review of the literature reveals trends and gaps in integrated pest management studies conducted in the United States

Integrated pest management (IPM) is a broad‐based approach for addressing pests that negatively affect human and environmental health and economic profitability. Weeds, insects and disease‐causing pathogens (diseases) are the pests most often associated with IPM. A systematic review, widely used in other scientific disciplines, was employed to determine the most commonly studied IPM topics and summarize the reasons for these trends and the gaps. In a field synopsis of the literature, 1679 relevant published papers were identified and categorized into one of the following five broad areas: IPM and organic (organic), climate change and pests (climate), rural and urban IPM (rural and urban), next‐generation education (education) and advanced production systems (technology). Papers were examined in greater detail for at least one of the three main pests in a systematic review. A majority (85%) of IPM papers have been in the area of rural and urban IPM, primarily addressing agriculture (78%). Professionals, landowners and the general public were the focus of a majority (95%) of IPM papers on education. Technology is an increasing area of focus in the literature. Over the past 40 years, IPM papers have primarily (75%) addressed insects and been limited mostly to rural and urban settings. Climate change, technology and education specific to pest management studies are increasingly being published and will help broaden the focus that could result in increased adoption and development of IPM. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry     

Thermal and hormonal regulation of the dormancy–germination transition in Amaranthus tuberculatus seeds

The transition from seed dormancy to germination is a multi‐step process. However, distinguishing between physiological processes involved in seed dormancy alleviation and those involved in germination has been difficult. We studied the seed dormancy alleviation process in Amaranthus tuberculatus, an important weed species in midwestern USA. Using three A. tuberculatus biotypes that differ in dormancy level, it was determined that stratification reduced seed dormancy from a high to a low level. Temperature alternation alleviated low seed dormancy and triggered germination. Exogenously applied abscisic acid (ABA) and gibberellic acid (GA) had no effect on seeds with high dormancy. However, ABA and paclobutrazol (a GA biosynthesis inhibitor) significantly reduced germination of seeds with low dormancy. Hormones could not replace the effects of stratification or temperature alternation on dormancy alleviation. Based on our results, we propose a seed dormancy–germination transition model in which the dormancy of A. tuberculatus seeds is progressively reduced from a high to a low level; but environmental conditions (i.e. stratification) can accelerate the dormancy alleviation process. Under low dormancy levels, the seed is more sensitive to environmental cues that are responsible for removing dormancy and triggering germination (i.e. temperature alternation). Finally, ABA and GA regulation occurs primarily during the final transition from low dormancy to germination rather than the alleviation of high dormancy.     

Description ofPauesia (Pauesia)anatolica (Hymenoptera: Braconidae, Aphidiinae) sp. nov., a parasitoid of the cedar aphidCinara cedri

The first parasitoid species reared from a population of the cedar aphid,Cinara cedri Mimeur, 1935 (Hemiptera: Aphididae), from the peninsula of Anatolia in Turkey is described.Pauesia anatolica (Hymenoptera: Braconidae, Aphidiinae) is closely related to some species of thelaricis group ofPauesia from which it differs in the number of antenomers, the propodeum and features of the female genitalia. Its potential use as a natural enemy in areas where the aphid has been introduced is discussed. http://www.phytoparasitica.org posting Aug. 28, 2005.     

Current statistical issues in Weed Research

The correct design of experimental studies, the selection of the appropriate statistical analysis of data and the efficient presentation of results are key to the good conduct and communication of science. The last Guidance for the use and presentation of statistics in Weed Research was published in 1988. Since then, there have been developments in both the scope of research covered by the journal and in the statistical techniques available. This paper addresses the changes in statistics and provides a reference work that will aid researchers in the design and analysis of their work. It will also provide guidance for editors and reviewers. The paper is organised into sections, which will aid the selection of relevant paragraphs, as we recognise that particular approaches require particular statistical analysis. It also uses examples, questions and checklists, so that non-specialists can work towards the correct approach. Statistics can be complex, so knowing when to seek specialist advice is important. The structure and layout of this contribution should help weed scientists, but it cannot provide a comprehensive guide to every technique. Therefore, we provide references to further reading. We would like to reinforce the idea that statistical methods are not a set of recipes whose mindless application is required by convention; each experiment or study may involve subtleties that these guidelines cannot cover. Nevertheless, we anticipate that this paper will help weed scientists in their initial designs for research, in the analysis of data and in the presentation of results for publication.     

Electrophoretic and serological comparisons of pathogenesis-related (b) proteins from different plant species

Preparations of pathogenesis-related (b) proteins (PRs) from differentNicotiana species, tomato,Gynura aurantiaca, bean, and cowpea were compared to each other and to bean chitinase and a constitutive apple agglutinin by electrophoresis in polyacrylamide gels both in the absence and in the presence of SDS, and by serological double diffusion analysis using antisera against tobacco PRs and bean chitinase. PRs from different plant genera displayed a similar but not identical range of relative mobilities in both native and SDS gels, whereas bean chitinase and apple agglutinin were clearly different. None of the antisera reacted with any of the PR preparations from plant genera other than the one from which the antigen(s) had been derived. Whilst PRs within the genusNicotiana are serologically related and can be identical, PRs from different plant genera seem to be sufficiently different to be considered as genus-specific.     

Contribution of Biological Control to Integrated Pest Management of Tephritid Fruit Flies in the Tropics and Subtropics

The biological control of pest tephritid flies using parasitoids has been successful in relatively few subtropical and tropical regions. The best documented successes were in Hawaii and Florida, USA, Fiji and southern Europe. There were relatively limited successes in Australia, Costa Rica and Mexico. With the accidental establishment of new pest tephritids, such as Bactrocera latifrons (Hendel) in Hawaii or Bactrocera papayae Drew and Hancock in Australia, foreign exploration for new parasitoids is essential. A renewal of interest in classical biological control has recently occurred, although not at the same level as in the 1940s and 1950s. New parasitoid species are currently being obtained for several tephritids, such as Ceratitis capitata (Weidemann), B. latifrons and Anastrepha suspensa (Loew). The advances in mass rearing and quality control technology for parasitoids has enabled researchers to perform large-scale field testing of these parasitoids to determine the potential of augmentative releases. Numerous studies on the augmentative release of parasitoids have been done. Historically, the larval—pupal parasitoid Diachasmimorpha longicaudata (Ashmead) has been the most frequently studied parasitoid, due to the ease of rearing this species. However, recent successes in rearing other species with different biologies, e.g. the egg—pupal parasitoid Biosteres arisanus (Sonan), the gregarious eulophid, Tetrastichus giffardianus (Silvestri) and the pupal parasitoid, Coptera sp., will enable researchers to broaden the repertoire of parasitoid species for the future. Both successes and failures in augmentative releases have occurred. Without knowledge of the behavioural ecology of parasitoids, the reasons for success or failure can only be surmised. Recent research on the dispersal and host habitat finding of tephritid parasitoids will provide insights into improving augmentation and conservation strategies. The integrated pest management (IPM) of tephritid flies in the tropics has been less well-developed than research and programmes for tephritids in temperate zones. Significant emphasis is now being placed on the development of quarantine treatment methods that are environmentally sound; thus IPM will take a larger role. Several existing pest management strategies are reviewed which show the potential for compatibility with the activities of tephritid parasitoids. These include trap cropping, insecticides with selective toxicity to the target pests, mass trapping with parapheromones, the sterile insect technique and field sanitation.     

Rapid Identification of Clavibacter michiganensis Subspecies sepedonicus Using Two Primers Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (TP-RAPD) Fingerprints

Twenty strains of Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. sepedonicus from different geographic origins and other reference strains of the same and different species, including other potato pathogens, were analysed with a new procedure named TP-RAPD that originates fingerprints of bacterial species. This procedure uses two primers to amplify the 16S rDNA gene. At 45 °C of annealing, the PCR product electrophoresed in agarose gels produced a band pattern that was different in all bacterial species studied as well as in the subspecies of C. michiganensis. All strains of C. michiganensis subsp. sepedonicus displayed the same TP-RAPD number of pattern. Unlike Gram negative bacteria, Gram positives of high G + C content, such as Clavibacter, produced low bands in TP-RAPD. By using a different set of two primers also based in the 16S rDNA sequence from Escherichia coli a more adequate amplification of Gram positives of high G + C including a greater number of bands was obtained. TP-RAPD patterns using the new set of primers described in this work is a reliable and fast method to identify C. michiganensis subsp. sepedonicus.