Pathogenic races and inoculum density ofFusarium oxysporum f.sp.niveum in commercial watermelon fields in southern Turkey

Systematic surveys forFusarium oxysporum f.sp.niveum (Fon) were conducted in a total of 141 fields in the watermelon-growing areas of the Mediterranean and southeastern Anatolia regions of Turkey in 2004 and 2005. The mean incidence and prevalence of the disease were higher in the southeastern Anatolia region than in the Mediterranean region. Maximum disease incidence during the 2-year survey was 46.3%. However, mean disease prevalence ranged from 27.3% to 63.6% in southern Turkey. Of the 33 isolates ofFon recovered, 19 were recovered from Adana, two from Mersin, one from Gaziantep, four from Sanlıurfa, five from Adıyaman, one from Batman, one from Diyarbakır. The physiological race of each isolate was determined by the disease reaction in five differential watermelon cultivars (Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai). Of the isolates recovered from the Mediterranean region, 47.6% were identified as race 0, 38.1% as race 1, and 14.3% as race 2. Among the 12 isolates recovered from the southeastern Anatolia region, four isolates were identified as race 0, and eight isolates as race 1. Race 2 was not detected in this region. This is the first report ofFon races 0 and 1 in southeastern Anatolia. The population density ofFon in both the Mediterranean and southeastern Anatolia regions ranged from 116.1 to 4444.7 CFU g⁻¹ of soil. The mean inoculum density was much higher in watermelon-growing areas in the southeastern Anatolia region in comparison with the Mediterranean region, with a mean inoculum density of 1547.2 CFU g⁻¹. Race 0 and race 1 were the most prevalent races in the fields with the mean highest and lowest inoculum density, respectively. http://www.phytoparasitica.org posting March 10, 2008.     

黑河流域中下游种子植物区系的初步研究

黑河流域是河西走廊最大内陆河流域。据初步调查,其中下游有种子植物５５ 科,２２０ 属,３９６ 种（不含栽培种）。区系特征是温带性质明显,古地中海起源,种类少但地理成份联系广泛,属于亚洲荒漠植物区系阿拉善亚地区植物区系的一部分。     

Preventing a new invasive alien plant from entering and spreading in the Euro‐Mediterranean region: the case study of Parthenium hysterophorus

Parthenium or famine weed (Parthenium hysterophorus L.) is an annual plant originating from the Americas, which is a major invasive alien plant in almost all continents. While the deleterious impacts of the species on agriculture, human and animal health have been well documented, information on the pathways of entry of the species is only occasionally mentioned in the literature. As this invasive alien plant is only recorded as established in Israel and Egypt within the Euro‐Mediterranean region, the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization identified P. hysterophorus as an emerging threat. EPPO therefore performed a Pest Risk Analysis on this species to assess the risk it represents and to consider appropriate management options. The EPPO Pest Risk Analysis main outputs are summarized in this article, indicating the probability of entry of the species via the different pathways within the EPPO region, its probabilities of establishment and spread, and the magnitude of its potential agricultural, environmental and social impacts.     

Analysis of Lolium temulentum geographical differentiation by microsatellite and AFLP markers

The genetic diversity and relationships of 48 Lolium temulentum accessions derived from eight countries (Morocco, Egypt, Tunisia, Italy, Ethiopia, Pakistan, Nepal and Japan) were analysed using seven microsatellite and 44 AFLP polymorphic loci to investigate the origin and distribution of genetic variation. Cluster analysis was performed using the unweighted pair-group method with arithmetic averages (UPGMA) based on the simple matching coefficient of similarity. Nei's gene diversity (h) and the coefficient of gene differentiation (G_st) were calculated. The results from microsatellite analysis indicated that accessions from the same country did not always cluster together, probably because of the limited number of loci used. In contrast, AFLP clearly separated clusters between countries and/or regions; Pakistan–Nepal complex, the Mediterranean region, Ethiopia and Japan. The h value was much higher for microsatellite than for AFLP analysis, indicating that microsatellites are the more variable markers. For AFLP analyses, h values were highest in accessions from Pakistan–Nepal complex, and from the Mediterranean region. These are in agreement with proposals that the origin of L. temulentum lies between the South-western Asia and the Mediterranean basin. The clear groupings of accessions from each country and/or region with high G_st (0.688) indicate that exchange of seeds between them is limited.     

Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici races and their genetic discrimination by molecular markers in West Mediterranean region of Turkey

Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici (FOL) races and F. oxysporum f. sp. radicis lycopersici (FORL), the causal agents of root rot and crown rot diseases, respectively, cause serious economic losses in tomato greenhouses where production is intensive in the West Mediterranean region of Turkey. The isolates were collected from West Mediterranean region of Turkey and were characterized by specific primers based on three races (r1, r2, r3), besides pathogenicity tests in in vivo conditions Additionally, a scheme was developed using newly tested ISSR and SRAP markers to a genotyping database and to determine the possible origin of these pathogens. The present study provided new information on these pathogens based on their races and their dominant existence in this region that has not been reported before. Genetic diversity detected in the same races of the pathogen may be associated with difficulties in controlling the pathogen and a possible resistance formation effort exerted by the pathogen to chemicals used in plant protection in tomato greenhouses. Molecular analyses indicated genetic diversity in pathogen isolates identified as r3, r2 and FORL, which may be associated with abiotic stress to which the pathogens were exposed.     

Genetic diversity of Moroccan populations of Orobanche foetida: evolving from parasitising wild hosts to crop plants

Orobanche foetida is widely distributed in western Mediterranean countries infecting wild legumes. Recently it has been reported in Morocco infecting common vetch, presenting a further constraint for legume production in this area. Comparative studies between Orobanche populations attacking wild species and Orobanche populations growing on crops from the same region may help to clarify whether a host specialisation process occurred. In the present study, the genetic variability of five O. foetida populations, four infecting wild plants and one infecting cultivated vetch in Morocco was characterised using amplified fragment‐length polymorphism (AFLP) markers to elucidate the existing genetic relationship between populations and to suggest a potential origin for the recently detected vetch‐infecting population. Analysis of molecular variance suggested the existence of genotypic differentiation among populations. The most genetic divergent population by cluster analysis was the population collected on Ornithopus sativus. The vetch‐infecting O. foetida population was closer to the three populations infecting Scorpiurus muricatus. The possibility of the presence of a reservoir of diversity is balanced against direct genetic adaptation and completely new introduction. The potential for this Orobanche species to shift host and become a threat to agriculture exists and has to be taken into account for future legume breeding for these areas.     

Note: Fluctuations in population of the first recorded predatory fly<Emphasis Type="Italic">Coenosia attenuata</Emphasis> in cotton fields in Turkey

The occurrence of the predatory flyCoenosia attenuata (Stein, 1903) is reported for the first time in Turkey. The population dynamics of the fly in irrigated cotton fields in the eastern Mediterranean region of Turkey is described, and the role ofC. attenuata as a biological control agent in the agroecosystem is discussed. http://www.phytoparasitica.org posting Sept. 30, 2003.     

Development of comparable agro‐climatic zones for the international exchange of data on the efficacy and crop safety of plant protection products1

Data on the efficacy and crop safety of plant protection products can be used for registration purposes in other countries, provided crop growth conditions are comparable. This article identifies the main conditions which are relevant in this respect, with particular emphasis on climatic conditions. Comparison of several systems of agro‐climatic classification developed for the EPPO region, particularly the climate diagrams of Walter & Lieth, the climate classification system of Köppen & Geiger, the agro‐climatic areas of Thran & Broekhuizen and natural vegetation maps, has led to a division of the EPPO region (Europe, Mediterranean area, Middle East) into four agro‐climatic zones (Mediterranean, Maritime, North‐east, Central) within which conditions can be considered comparable.     

The vegetable weevil, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Listroderes costirostris</Emphasis> Schoenherr (Curculionidae: Cyclominae): a new invasive pest in Israel

Two females of Listroderes costirostris Schoenherr (Curculionidae: Cyclominae: Rhytirrhinini) were collected in Israel. This is the first record of this species in the East Mediterranean region.     

Plant Viruses Transmitted by Whiteflies

One-hundred and fourteen virus species are transmitted by whiteflies (family Aleyrodidae). Bemisia tabaci transmits 111 of these species while Trialeurodes vaporariorum and T. abutilonia transmit three species each. B. tabaci and T. vaporariorum are present in the European–Mediterranean region, though the former is restricted in its distribution. Of the whitefly-transmitted virus species, 90% belong to the Begomovirus genus, 6% to the Crinivirus genus and the remaining 4% are in the Closterovirus, Ipomovirus or Carlavirus genera. Other named, whitefly-transmitted viruses that have not yet been ranked as species are also documented. The names, abbreviations and synonyms of the whitefly-transmitted viruses are presented in tabulated form together with details of their whitefly vectors, natural hosts and distribution. Entries are also annotated with references. Whitefly-transmitted viruses affecting plants in the European–Mediterranean region have been highlighted in the text.     

Nematological problems,production systems and Mediterranean environments1

The characteristic phytonematological problems in areas with Mediterranean climate are analysed. The problems are, in order of economical importance, root-knot nematodes, cyst nematodes, virus vectors, endoparasitic nematodes, stem nematodes, citrus nematode and ectoparasitic nematodes. The interest in getting alternative control techniques supported by production systems is stated. Nematodes were already differentiated in the Pliocene, at the end of the Tertiary, the period in which the Mediterranean climate appeared. Two structural elements are distinguished in the nematofauna and are defined as a characteristic temperate environment group and a tropical group. These two groups are found in Mediterranean environments according to environmental characteristics conditioned by geomorphology and, above all, since the Neolithic, by agrarian systems through cultural techniques. The importance of agrarian production systems, as an alternative control for plant parasitic nematodes in the Mediterranean region, is pointed out. Control alternatives are considered that are based on the capability of such systems to keep the environmental and spatial heterogeneity, that allows the nematode populations regulation and spatio-temporal isolation, avoiding, in this way, the epidemic development and dispersion of pathogenic species.     

Eradication and control of invasive alien plants in the Mediterranean Basin: towards better coordination to enhance existing initiatives

The European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO), in the framework of its activities in the Mediterranean Basin, launched a questionnaire to gather information on eradication actions and control actions for invasive alien plants. Thirty‐four (34) eradication actions were reported, 16 occurring in Spain, 7 in Italy, 7 in France, 1 in Portugal, 1 in Malta, and 2 on the southern rim of the Mediterranean, with 1 in Israel and 1 in Tunisia. Twenty‐two (22) species were targeted, and the habitats where such actions were undertaken most frequently were coastal dunes, sandy shores and aquatic ecosystems. Most of the species that have been the object of an eradication action were known invasive species recorded in the EPPO lists, such as Ailanthus altissima, Buddleia davidii, Carpobrotus spp., Eichhornia crassipes, Ludwigia peploides, Pennisetum setaceum, Pistia stratiotes, Solanum elaeagnifolium and Sicyos angulatus. Other eradicated species have a limited distribution in the EPPO region and may represent emerging invasive plants, such as Ambrosia confertifolia, Cylindropuntia rosea, Leersia oryzoides, Leptochloa fusca subsp. uninervia and Marsilea drummondii. Control actions concerning 90 species were also reported. A large number of eradication actions, as well as management actions, are therefore happening in Mediterranean countries. At present countries appear to operate with complete autonomy, without consulting neighbouring countries or other stakeholders within the country. There is therefore a need for coordination of new eradication actions.     

Diversity of European begomoviruses: identification of a new disease complex*

The diversity of whitefly‐transmitted begomoviruses in Europe is low, most being exotic, introduced species. The only agriculturally important viruses are two species causing tomato yellow leaf curl. These viruses are believed to have originated in the Middle East but have since spread right across the Mediterranean region. Two ornamentals (Abutilon and Lonicera japonica) were introduced into Europe from the New World and the Far East, respectively, for the striking symptoms induced by the viruses which infect them. The virus infecting honeysuckle (Honeysuckle yellow vein mosaic virus) has been shown to be part of newly identified cluster of begomoviruses which require an additional component, a satellite molecule termed DNA β, to induce symptoms in their host plants. A further begomovirus, Ipomoea yellow vein virus, which infects the weed Ipomoea indica, is present in the Mediterranean region. The precise origin and relationship of this virus to other begomoviruses is unclear.     

Genetic study of Mediterranean and South American populations of tomato leafminer Tuta absoluta (Povolny, 1994) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) using ribosomal and mitochondrial markers

BACKGROUND: Before its introduction into Europe at the end of 2006, Tuta absoluta (Povolny, 1994) was confined solely to South America. Currently, this invasive pest is well established in various European and Mediterranean countries, causing important economic losses to tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) crops. In order to study the genetic variability of this pest, 23 Mediterranean and ten native South American populations were analysed with nuclear ribosomal DNA (rDNA) and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) markers. RESULTS: The internal transcribed spacers 1 (ITS1) and 2 (ITS2) of rDNA and a fragment in the mtDNA gene encoding cytochrome oxidase I (COI) were PCR amplified and sequenced in T. absoluta. Sequence analyses consistently revealed neither intrapopulation nor interpopulation variation in either genomic region. CONCLUSIONS: High genetic homogeneity was detected in T. absoluta populations from the Mediterranean Basin and South America, based on mtCOI and ITS rDNA sequence analysis. A single genetic type was identified in this pest. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry     

Citrus certification in Mediterranean countries1

Citrus suffers severe losses from virus and similar diseases, which are mainly spread by grafts, stocks and scions. This planting material needs to be made virus-free throughout the Mediterreanean region. The standards published by EPPO in 1980 remain valid for this purpose: they provide techniques for elimination of the viruses and for protecting healthy material from reinfection. The actual situation in individual Mediterranean countries is reviewed, especially with regard to certification programmes (still not started in several cases). Healthy planting material of certain cultivars can be obtained on the international market, but this is not true of local cultivars which also need to be certified. In any case, the import of planting material carries the risk of introducing diseases not yet present in the Mediterranean region, so that strict quarantine procedures are needed.     

Emergence de Ceratitis capitata (Diptera: Tephritidae) sur culture protégée de piment (Solanaceae) en zone subsaharienne (Algérie)

In Algeria, the Mediterranean fruit fly has long been associated with fruit production in coastal regions with a temperate climate. But with climate change, especially in autumn and spring, this fly has spread and attacks other host plants. The medfly appeared in the sub-Saharan area of Souf region (Algeria) on chilli pepper (Capsicum annuum) under protected crops and causes significant damage.     

SDS-PAGE: a tool to discriminate Xylella fastidiosa from other endophytic grapevine bacteria*

There is a real risk of introducing Xylella fastidiosa into the EPPO region where this quarantine pest has not yet been found and constitutes a serious threat to the Mediterranean grapevine industry. Direct isolation of endophytic bacteria from imported propagation material, combined with one-dimensional SDS-PAGE of the total soluble proteins of the bacterial cell envelope, can be considered as a test to be used in grapevine certification schemes. The gel electrophoretic pattern of Xylella fastidiosa is characterized by a constant distribution of 14 major diagnostic bands. Even without gel scanning, this relatively simple technique allows discrimination between grapevine strains of X. fastidiosa and other xylem-inhabiting, slow-growing bacteria.     

New record of invasive mealybug Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) in Turkey

This short note reports the first record of the invasive mealybug Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) in Turkey. It was found on ornamental plants in the city center of Adana (Mediterranean region), but could be a threat to cotton production in the country.     

Plant parasitic nematodes of Tylenchida (Nematoda) associated with groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) fields in the Mediterranean region of Turkey

In a nematode survey of Tylenchida carried out in groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) growing areas in the Mediterranean region of Turkey, 15 species were determined as belonging to ten genera of eight families within the superfamilies Tylenchoidea, Dolichodoroidea, Hoplolaimoidea and Anguinoidea. Each of them constitutes a new record on groundnut in Turkey, andScutylenchus tumensis Skwiercz andPratylenchus brachyurus (Godfrey) are reported for the first time in the nematofauna of Turkey.     

Improving the prevention of alien plant invasion in the EPPO region: the need to focus on highly invasive plants with (still) limited distribution – examples from Israel

Prevention (of invasion) is the most efficient strategy to control invasive alien plants (IAPs). This requires that potentially invasive plant taxa not yet introduced into regions where they could become invasive are identified as early as possible. Therefore, alongside the best known and already widespread IAPs it is crucial to highlight highly invasive plant taxa whose distribution is still limited. It becomes even more important to consider those taxa when some are recommended as ornamental/useful species outside their native range. This paper provides six examples of IAPs whose invasiveness has been established but which are still restricted to a single EPPO country (Israel). While horizon‐scanning studies have produced valuable alert lists, mainly for temperate Europe, EPPO pest risk analyses have focused on IAPs that are widespread outside the EPPO region. Therefore it is suggested that more attention is given to IAPs that pose a threat to Mediterranean, semiarid and arid areas within the EPPO region but that so far have remained largely unnoticed because of their present limited distribution. Awareness of these species must be urgently raised before they spread to new EPPO countries. The elaboration of a database compiling information about IAPs characterized by a restricted distribution in each EPPO country is discussed. The examples presented in this paper are most relevant to EPPO countries with a dry (Mediterranean, semiarid and arid) climate.