Conservation of Rapa Nui waters strongly supported by publications in Aquatic Conservation

1. This paper describes how a series of papers published in Aquatic Conservation have had a clear impact on the conservation process run at Rapa Nui by the Chilean Government and the Rapanui community.
2. Exploratory expeditions set the scientific basis for the creation of Rapa Nui Multiple Use Marine Protected Area.
3. Past conservation initiatives lacked proper participative processes and were strongly resisted by the local communities.
4. Science transfer through capacity building was key for a local transformation towards embracing marine conservation objectives.
5. Publications showed the importance of participation, a good balance between political will and a local wish for protection of the sea, and the incorporation of a local worldview, for a successful conservation process.
6. Strong differences between the socio‐ecological systems in mainland Chile and that in Rapa Nui were recognized and helped to build a new conservation strategy for Rapa Nui between the Chilean Government and Rapanui community.
7. International experience exchanges also helped to develop the conservation process in Rapa Nui, and recent ecological studies will help future Marine Protected Area implementation.

     

Science,capacity building and conservation knowledge: The empowerment of the local community for marine conservation in Rapa Nui

1. Marine protected areas have been scaling up from small areas located in coastal waters to large‐scale marine protected areas in remote areas, partly in response to the international agenda to conserve 10% of marine and coastal areas.
2. Chile has made considerable progress in the designation of large‐scale marine protected areas in its oceanic islands with varying degrees of top‐down and bottom‐up processes, scientific knowledge and interplay among institutions.
3. The process of designating the multiple‐uses marine protected area in Rapa Nui (Easter Island) involved interplay among scientific research, capacity building, local knowledge and collaboration between sectors, which contributed to the community transformation toward marine conservation in Rapa Nui.
4. A recent increase in scientific research on the marine ecosystems was transmitted to stakeholders and the local community via capacity‐building actions. The knowledge‐based empowerment of the Rapanui population (inhabitants of Rapa Nui) involved the definition not only of the objectives, the extension and the conservation goals of the Rapa Nui multiple‐uses marine protected area, but also of the implications beyond the designation, such as issues of governance, management and financing.
5. The implementation of the Rapa Nui multiple‐uses marine protected area will test local and Rapanui government relationships. The continuous science‐knowledge‐based dialogue in a strengthened relationship between the government and the local community in a ‘process of relating’ might be the pathway to future effective conservation efforts and successes.

     

Factors (type,colour, density,and shape) determining the removal of marine plastic debris by seabirds from the South Pacific Ocean: Is there a pattern?

1. While floating near the sea surface plastic debris interacts with a number of external factors, including many different organisms. Seabirds have the most extensive documented history of interactions with plastics, through ingestion, entanglement, and nest construction.
2. In the present study, eight seabird species from the South Pacific Ocean were used as a proxy to determine potential patterns of removal of marine plastic debris, and three hypotheses were tested in relation to their feeding habits and nesting areas.
3. Plastics from abiotic compartments (Chilean continental coast, South Pacific Gyre, and Rapa Nui beaches) and biotic compartments (surface-feeding seabirds, diving seabirds, and nesting areas) were compared, according to their type, colour, shape, and density.
4. Continental beaches had a relatively wide range of colours and shapes, with many non-buoyant plastics. Samples from the South Pacific Gyre (SPG) and Rapa Nui (Easter Island) beaches comprised mainly hard, rounded, buoyant, and white/grey plastics.
5. These results indicate that the composition of floating plastics from terrestrial sources changes during transport with oceanic currents, reducing the proportion of prey-like plastics present in the subtropical gyres.
6. The stomach contents of surface-feeding and diving seabirds were dominated by hard, white/grey, and round plastic items, similar to plastics from the SPG, suggesting non-selective (accidental or secondary) ingestion.
7. Nesting areas had a more variable composition of brightly coloured plastics, suggesting a pattern of selective removal of plastics by seabirds, probably from oceanic sources.
8. The present study reveals extensive interactions of seabirds with plastics on a broader scale, which is highly relevant given that the impacts of plastics on seabirds are increasing worldwide, compromising their efficient conservation.

     

An alternative approach for managing scuba diving in small marine protected areas

• 1. As the interest of divers in exploring marine protected areas grows, so does their impact on sensitive marine organisms and communities. This situation has led managers to adopt a variety of measures to manage scuba diving in marine reserves. However, if marine areas need to be managed and protected from the adverse effects of human activities, then the characterization of marine habitats and the communities they contain, along with the potential effects of scuba diving, will need to be evaluated on scientific lines.
• 2. To this end, the use of benthic mapping, together with an evaluation of community vulnerability, constitutes a complementary tool for managing scuba diving, as is demonstrated in the present study.
• 3. The identification and evaluation of the different communities observed in Cabo de Palos‐Islas Hormigas Marine Reserve enables managers to propose different measures for controlling potential diver impact and also for evaluating the effects of these measures, thus reducing the degradation of the benthic organisms and communities, benefiting the local tourism industry and allowing a more sustainable use of the marine reserve resources.

Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Temporal changes in seabird assemblage structure and trait diversity in the Rapa Nui (Easter Island) multiple-use marine protected area

1. For Rapa Nui (Easter Island) and its largest islet, Motu Nui, the change of the species assemblage over time was analysed, and a trait-based approach to evaluate the potential losses in seabird function across the past centuries was applied. At a finer scale, the seasonal changes in seabird species composition in the current seabird assemblage was assessed to better understand the dynamics of the long-term inferred patterns.
2. For Rapa Nui, the composition of the seabird assemblage between the prehistorical, historical, and current time has changed significantly. The most critical change, probably associated with human colonization, was observed between prehistoric and current times. The current diminished number of nesting seabird species was probably the result of local extirpation without evidence of colonization by new species.
3. For Motu Nui, changes in species composition were also followed by changes in trait structure, which were smaller than observed in Rapa Nui. This is probably due to the presence of a relatively high number of related species (i.e. Procellariids) with high similarities in their foraging behaviour.
4. The nesting seabird assemblages in Rapa Nui and Motu Nui differ in exposure to risk; thus, conservation strategies applied to the islands should be planned on a fine spatial scale. For Rapa Nui, which is an urban wildlife area with several invasive species and a low number of remaining native seabird species, management should focus on fencing and pets control. For Motu Nui, management should instead focus on the establishment of quarantine and other biosecurity tools to avoid both the entry and proliferation of new invasive species.

     

Spatial and seasonal differences in the top predators of Easter Island: Essential data for implementing the new Rapa Nui multiple‐uses marine protected area

1. Reef fishes are an important component of marine biodiversity, and changes in the composition of the assemblage structure may indicate ecological, climatic, or anthropogenic disturbances. To examine spatial differences in the reef fish assemblage structure around Easter Island, eight sites were sampled during autumn and summer 2016–2017 with baited remote underwater video systems.
2. To determine seasonal changes, quarterly (seasonal) sampling was conducted at five of those eight sites. Fifteen pelagic species of fishes were recorded during this study, some of which have not previously been recorded in scuba surveys, including the Galapagos shark (Carcharhinus galapagensis, Snodgrass & Heller, 1905) and tunas (Scrombidae).
3. Significant spatial and seasonal differences were found in the fish assemblage. Fish assemblages from the south coast differed significantly from those along the west and east coasts, mainly due to the occurrence of top predators. Winter differed from other seasons, especially along the south coast where the island is more exposed to large oceanic swells and winds from Antarctica.
4. Owing to the variety and high relative abundance of species recorded during this survey, baited remote underwater video systems seemed to be an effective method for studying top predators at Easter Island. The identification of priority zones for the protection of top predator species represents an important contribution of this study, in order to develop management and conservation strategies to be implemented in the newly created Rapa Nui multiple uses coastal marine protected areas.

     

Regular monitoring and targeted removals can control lionfish in Mediterranean Marine Protected Areas

1. A lack of biosecurity in the Suez Canal has combined with global warming and other human pressures to cause abrupt changes in the Mediterranean Sea. Throughout this region an influx of species is influencing the outcome of efforts to protect and restore nature.
2. Despite calls for targeted removals of invasive species from protected areas, there is limited information about the effectiveness of this course of action from both an ecological and a socio-economic perspective. In this study, coordinated removals of lionfish (Pterois miles) by volunteers/scuba divers at three marine protected sites in Cyprus were conducted.
3. The removal efficiency was monitored using visual-census surveys and citizen science data. Removals significantly decreased lionfish numbers but long-term suppression of lionfish would require monitoring and repetition of removals when necessary, since population recovery was sometimes rapid.
4. Citizen science yielded the data needed to understand lionfish population changes and guide the timing of removal events, but was characterized by large variation and potential outliers, highlighting the need for large sample sizes.
5. Questionnaire surveys were used to assess the social impact of participation in lionfish removals; these showed that involvement had a strong positive impact on knowledge about lionfish and motivation to support marine conservation activities – the divers were even willing to pay extra to remove lionfish.
6. Management reforms would be needed to capitalize on this societal motivation, and enable effective lionfish removals by scuba divers, coordinated by competent authorities. The EU aims to protect at least 30% of the marine waters by 2030. Removal events could help shield selected conservation sites from the adverse effects of lionfish and at the same time help establish links with local communities, strengthening the sustainable use of marine systems both at corporate and at societal levels.

     

Recreational scuba diving in a groundwater ecosystem: Disturbance mechanisms,ecological impacts and stakeholder perceptions

1. Ecological damage by scuba divers has been extensively studied in marine ecosystems, particularly coral reefs, whereas the impacts on freshwater environments such as groundwater springs is unknown. In the Silfra groundwater fissure in Iceland, a vast increase in diver entries has occurred during the last decade, prompting concerns over potential ecosystem impacts and visitor carrying capacity.
2. Here, a mixed‐method approach was used to assess the impacts of scuba diving in Silfra. (a) Divers were recorded under water to observe the mechanisms of diver‐related disturbances, (b) benthic material was collected along transects in Silfra and the undisturbed fissure Flosagjá to compare biofilm biomass and zoobenthic communities between and within fissures, and (c) the perceptions and experiences of stakeholders surrounding the dive tourism in Silfra were explored.
3. Underwater observations showed that 91.4% of the divers caused at least a single disturbance, resulting in biofilm detachments and/or sediment stirring. Diver fins caused the most frequent disturbances, predominantly through fin‐generated currents but also by directly contacting the substrate. Benthic biofilm biomass was lower in Silfra than Flosagjá and exhibited a negative correlation with dive‐use. Some disturbance‐tolerant zoobenthic groups exhibited moderate to strong correlations with dive‐use.
4. All stakeholders had negative perceptions towards increasing diver entries, but although entry limitation could improve tourism quality, disturbance might only minimally be reduced as springs like Silfra may be particularly sensitive.
5. Springs are characteristically stable and uniform environments that can be vulnerable to disturbance. Their use for scuba diving should be carefully managed through a holistic approach and an active collaboration between all stakeholders.

     

Scuba diving with the grey nurse shark (Carcharias taurus): an application of the theory of planned behaviour to identify divers beliefs

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Marine protected areas invaded by floating anthropogenic litter: An example from the South Pacific

1. Oceanic marine protected areas (MPAs) that are close to the litter accumulation zones in the subtropical gyres receive large amounts of plastic litter, both as micro‐ and as macroplastics.
2. The macro‐litter accumulating on the islands in the Easter Island Ecoregion (Rapa Nui and Salas y Gómez) can be traced back to the high seas industrial fishery operating in the South Pacific.
3. Seabirds nesting in the MPAs in the South Pacific are affected by both microplastic ingestion and macroplastic in their nests, but there was no evidence of entangled birds.
4. Conservation of seabirds (and other species) in these oceanic MPAs requires efficient measures to reduce plastic contamination in the ocean.
5. Observations made in the South Pacific coincide with those from other oceanic MPAs, calling for global actions.

     

Tracing trophic pathways through the marine ecosystem of Rapa Nui (Easter Island)

1. The structure of food webs provides important insight into biodiversity, organic matter (OM) pathways, and ecosystem functioning.
2. Stable isotope analysis (δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N) was used to characterize the trophic structure and the main OM pathways supporting food webs in the Rapa Nui coastal marine ecosystem.
3. The trophic position of consumers and isotopic niche metrics were estimated for different assemblages (i.e. mesozooplankton, emergent zooplankton, reef invertebrates, reef fishes, pelagic fishes, and seabirds). Furthermore, the relative importance of different OM sources (i.e. macroalgae, zooxanthellate corals, and particulate OM [POM]) was assessed for heterotrophic consumers using Bayesian mixing model (MixSIAR).
4. Results show a clear pattern of ¹³C and ¹⁵N enrichment from small-sized pelagic and benthic invertebrates, to reef and pelagic fishes, and seabirds. Most invertebrates were classified as primary consumers, reef fishes as secondary consumers and pelagic predators and seabirds as tertiary and quaternary consumers.
5. Isotopic niche metrics indicate a low trophic diversity for pelagic assemblages (mesozooplankton and pelagic fishes), in contrast to reef fauna (invertebrates and fishes), whose higher trophic diversity suggest the exploitation of a wider range of trophic resources. Overlapping of standard ellipses areas between reef invertebrates and reef fishes indicates that both assemblages could be sharing trophic resources.
6. Mixing models results indicate that POM is the main trophic pathway for mesozooplankton, macroalgae (Rhodophyta) for emergent zooplankton, and a mix of coral-derived OM and Rhodophyta for coral reef assemblages such as macrobenthos and reef invertebrates. In contrast, POM contribution was notably more important for some pelagic fishes and seabirds from upper trophic levels.
7. This study provides key elements for conservation efforts on coral reefs, management planning and full-implementation of the recently created Rapa Nui Multiple Use Marine Protected Area.

     

You can choose your relatives: Building marine protected area networks from sister sites

1. The world's oceans are often perceived as barriers that separate countries. To counter these divisions and improve protection of ocean resources, marine protected area (MPA) managers have formed alliances that bridge jurisdictional boundaries to share strategies and resources with other protected areas.
2. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Office of National Marine Sanctuaries has embraced this sister site approach to connect MPA management based on ecological and cultural links. Designed to strengthen the management of ecologically and culturally connected areas, these relationships between protected areas serve as catalysts for effective stewardship of the ocean's biological resources and show the important benefits of transnational cooperation.
3. This paper summarizes the lessons from over a decade of sister site partnerships, including case studies from Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary and four sites in the Caribbean working together to protect a shared population of humpback whales; the Gulf of Mexico Sister Site Network being developed by the USA, Mexico, and Cuba; Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument and Rapa Nui in Chile; and broader collaboration among MPAs in the USA and Chile on the Pacific coast.

     

Human impacts on the endangered fan mussel,Pinna nobilis

1. Pinna nobilis is a sensitive and vulnerable species and is hence considered a good indicator of anthropogenic pressures on marine ecosystems.
2. This study provides novel data on the density and distribution of endangered P. nobilis on the Turkish coasts. Threats to the status of P. nobilis, including by‐catch and illegal collection, were assessed, as was the general awareness of people about the endangered status of fan mussels.
3. The data sources consisted of direct observations from diving surveys and the local ecological knowledge (LEK) of fishers and scuba‐divers.
4. Results demonstrated that the density of P. nobilis significantly changed with environmental parameters, such as depth, and among different sampling areas. The number of damaged individuals was lowest in the areas that were distant from human influences such as ports and tourist beaches. The density estimations of P. nobilis across a wide geographic area around the Turkish coasts revealed that the density of fan mussels was highest around western coasts in comparison with southern coasts.
5. Fishers and divers indicated that the population of this species has decreased during the last decade. The main causes of this decline were suggested to be the impacts of fishing gear, poaching, pollution, and boat anchoring. The highest volume of by‐catch was estimated to be taken by trawls. In general, the knowledge and local awareness of the conservation importance and status of fan mussels was poor.
6. The study has identified those areas where fan mussels occur at a high density, and hence may indicate areas for possible conservation protection status. Second, areas exposed to the illegal harvesting of fan mussels were highlighted. Societal concern would benefit from educational activities to raise awareness of the ecological importance and conservation needs for fan mussels in Turkey.

     

Shark reactions to scuba divers in two marine protected areas of the Eastern Tropical Pacific

• 1. Worldwide, there are concerns about the potential impact of a growing tourism industry on the behaviour and ecology of sharks. Several shark species are key attractions in the scuba diving industry in both the Galápagos Marine Reserve (Ecuador) and the Sanctuary of Fauna and Flora Malpelo (Colombia).
• 2. In this study, the reactions of five species of shark to the behaviour of scuba divers were investigated in the Galápagos and Malpelo.
• 3. Four discrete categories of shark reaction (evasion, spontaneous approach, alert and no reaction) were identified and analysed against five categories of diver behaviour (direct approach, camera flash, sudden movement, noise and simple presence), two categories of observation strategy (still and movement) and the distance of the focal diver group to the sharks.
• 4. The type of reaction in the sharks was determined by the behaviour of the divers, their distance to the fish and, especially, by their observation strategy. Shark reactions varied between species and locations and divers acted more intrusively towards those species they were not afraid of, and which they could access more easily due to the conditions of their environment.
• 5. ‘Direct approach’, ‘sudden movement’, the observation strategy ‘moving’ and distances closer than 4 m between divers and sharks elicited stronger behavioural responses by the species targeted. Recommendations are given for the preferred actions divers should employ in order to diminish the effects on the target species analysed in this study. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

     

Ecological and genetic evidence of the vulnerability of shallow‐water populations of the stylasterid hydrocoral Errina novaezelandiae in New Zealand's fiords

• 1. Some of the key life history characteristics that make modular marine invertebrates such as corals vulnerable to disturbance and stress are susceptibility to damage, slow growth, longevity, and philopatry. This may be particularly so for marginal populations at the limits of their range and, for instance, that are attractive to scuba divers.
• 2. In this study we examined the population structure and incidence of damage, quantified growth rates and estimated gene flow to assess the effects of divers on the deep‐water emergent populations of the fragile red coral Errina novaezelandiae in the Te Awaatu Marine Reserve in Fiordland, New Zealand.
• 3. We found that population structure in red corals is skewed, with small colonies the most abundant. Damage was up to eight times higher in dived than in non‐dived populations of red coral, and large colonies were more likely to be damaged. Growth in red corals can be high (up to 7 cm ^?1), although net growth is much lower (0.7 cm yr^?1) due to the effects of partial mortality. On the basis of the slow growth rate, we estimate that large corals (>20 cm diameter) will be in excess of 30 yr old. We also found high genetic subdivision among red coral populations and evidence of inbreeding, indicative of limited larval dispersal among neighbouring populations.
• 4. Overall, our results indicate the shallow‐water populations of red coral in Fiordland will be susceptible to impacts from scuba diving, and the development of a management strategy to ensure ecologically sustainable tourism and to minimize the effects of divers will be essential for their conservation.

Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Are changing diver characteristics important for coral reef conservation?

1. the 2012 industry has a higher proportion of low and medium specialization visitors that have lower expectations and lower overall satisfaction, yet remain willing to return;
2. the average per capita economic contribution of divers to the local economy and to dive companies declined by more than 30% by 2012;
3. Andaman coast diving continued to grow in 2012, dominated by mass ‐ market tourism that had diversified into several niches;
4. the results verify the use of the Wildlife Tourism Model as a tool to understand industry sustainability, and suggest further development of the model to capture the extension into specific, niche markets.

Changes to diver characteristics in 2012 restrict the ability of diving to fund conservation, provide alternative livelihoods, support environmental choices by operators, and control dive pressure exerted on reefs.

Results suggest the operationalization of Limits of Acceptable Change by both managers and dive operators to grow the conservation value of diving.

The results of this study suggest that the Wildlife Tourism Model can be used to inform management choices in emerging dive destinations. For instance, creating spatial zones that target the tourist composition most appropriate to meet the conservation goals of each reef system.

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Diving for science ‐ science for diving: volunteer scuba divers support science and conservation in the Mediterranean Sea

1. Recreational diving engages 20 million people worldwide. Most of the literature refers to tropical destinations but at least 1 million dives per year take place in Mediterranean marine protected areas (MPAs).
2. Divers may negatively affect underwater habitats. However, if effectively engaged, they can contribute to science, territorial management and more sustainable local economies.
3. During 2006–2014, volunteers trained by the not‐for‐profit organization Reef Check Italia (RCI) completed 24 714 observations and 2417 dives in six Mediterranean countries, contributing to a dataset that supports scientific papers about climate change, rare and non‐indigenous species (NIS), and informs MPA management decision‐making.
4. The wide range of opportunities offered by this dataset is illustrated with two examples relevant to marine conservation in the context of MPA management. They concern: (i) the spread of the NIS Caulerpa cylindracea along the Ligurian coasts, with a focus on Portofino MPA, and (ii) the distribution and abundance of protected species in the Portofino MPA.
5. A diver‐focused survey showed that RCI volunteers are highly committed, and that participation in RCI activities has led to a better understanding of, and a sense of stewardship towards, favoured dive sites and the marine world. Knowing who volunteers are, and why they volunteer in their favourite sector, is crucial to designing citizen‐science based projects able to achieve their multiple goals.

Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Identifying key habitats for the conservation of Chilean dolphins in the fjords of southern Chile

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Exploring overlooked components of remote South-east Pacific oceanic islands: Larval and macrobenthic assemblages in reef habitats with distinct underwater soundscapes

1. Identifying the diverse assemblage of species inhabiting rocky and coral reef habitats in isolated oceanic environments, and the important sound cues emitted from the reef, are crucial components to understand how species locate suitable habitats for the completion of their life-cycle and, thus, the functioning of these vulnerable ecosystems.
2. Recent field information suggests that the majority of reef biodiversity comprises small cryptic invertebrates; however, knowledge on these small components is extremely scarce.
3. The present study used light attraction methods to explore the diversity of larval, post-larval and macrobenthic cryptic fauna, and hydrophones to characterize the natural soundscape of rocky and coral reef habitats at the Robinson Crusoe island (Juan Fernandez Archipelago; 33°38′S, 78°50′W), and Rapa Nui (Easter Island; 27°7′S, 109°21′W), respectively.
4. Pelagic collections found important site-specific patterns and identified two main species assemblages: early-life stages (e.g. eggs, larval and juvenile stages of crustaceans, molluscs, and fishes) and emerging macrobenthos (e.g. demersal zooplankton such as peracarid crustaceans, ostracods, copepods, and polychaetes), with the latter contributing between 73 and 98% to the total catches.
5. The soundscape records showed marked differences among sites and seasons at Robinson Crusoe island, with variable differences found between day and night. However, at Rapa Nui, there were no differences between sites, but the ambient sound was higher at night possibly due to higher snapping shrimp activity.
6. This information highlights the importance of considering small-scale (site-to-site) patterns when evaluating overlooked components of diversity (i.e. biological or acoustic) in oceanic habitats, and provides the basis for understanding the importance of natural noise in the settlement of most reef-associated species, crucial features for the conservation of these remote and vulnerable ecosystems.

     

Movements and diving behaviour of white-chinned petrels: Diurnal variation and implications for bycatch mitigation

1. Many seabirds dive to forage, and the ability to use this hunting technique varies according to such factors as morphology, physiology, prey availability, and ambient light levels. Proficient divers are more able to seize sinking baits deployed by longline fishing vessels and may return them to the surface, increasing exposure of other species. Hence, diving ability has major implications for mitigating incidental mortality (bycatch) in fisheries.
2. Here, the diving behaviour and activity patterns of the most bycaught seabird species worldwide, the white-chinned petrel (Procellaria aequinoctialis), tracked from Bird Island (South Georgia), are analysed. Three data sources (dives, spatial movements, and immersion events) are combined to examine diverse aspects of at-sea foraging behaviour, and their implications for alternative approaches to bycatch mitigation are considered.
3. The tracked white-chinned petrels (n = 14) mostly performed shallow dives (<3 m deep) of very short duration (<5 s), predominantly during darkness, but only 7 and 10% of landings in daylight and darkness, respectively, involved diving, suggesting that surface-seizing is the preferred foraging technique. Nonetheless, individuals were able to dive to considerable depth (max = 14.5 m) and at speed (max = 2.0 m·s⁻¹), underlining the importance of using heavy line-weighting to maximize hook sink rates, and bird-scaring lines (Tori lines) that extend for long distances behind vessels to protect hooks until beyond diving depths.