Historical and contemporary habitat use of sperm whales around the Galápagos Archipelago: Implications for conservation

1. Sperm whales have occupied the waters off the Galápagos Islands, Ecuador, for at least the past 200 years. During the 19^th century, they were the target of intensive whaling that severely depleted the population. In recent times, after commercial whaling ended, sperm whales in the region remain vulnerable to multiple threats, especially potential entanglement in fishing gear, which may hinder their ability to recover from the whaling era.
2. As a highly mobile, long-lived species, long-term analysis of the habitat use of sperm whales is necessary to establish effective conservation and management strategies. Here, contemporary (1985–2014) and historical (1830–1850) sperm whale habitat use off the Galápagos Islands was analysed and contrasted to the extent of the Galápagos Marine Reserve (GMR). Contemporary habitat use and its variability over time were modelled as a function of geographic, oceanographic, and topographic variables using generalized additive models.
3. The fine-scale habitat (<50 km) used by sperm whales was associated with topographic (i.e. depth and slope) and oceanographic characteristics (i.e. relative sea surface temperature and standard deviation of sea surface temperature), but these preferences varied over time.
4. While historical and contemporary data indicate that sperm whale habitat primarily occurred within the boundaries of the GMR, in recent years, whales were found up to 30.1% of the time outside the GMR, potentially overlapping with commercial fisheries operating in the area.
5. The dynamic nature of the relationship of this nomadic species with its habitat highlights the need of large-scale conservation efforts across the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, including the wide-scale enforcement of regulations requiring the use of Automatic Identification System in fishing vessels, the promotion of on-board fisheries observer programmes, the development of adaptive management strategies, and international collaboration to identify and mitigate threats.

     

First evidence of bubble-net feeding and the formation of ‘super-groups’ by the east Australian population of humpback whales during their southward migration

1. The recovery of overexploited populations is likely to reveal behaviours that may have been present prior to harvest but are only now reappearing as the population size increases. The east Australian humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) population (group V, stock E1) has recovered well from past exploitation and is now estimated to be close to the pre-whaling population size.
2. Humpback whales were thought to follow a ‘feast and famine’ model historically, feeding intensively in high-latitude feeding grounds and then fasting while migrating and in calving grounds; however, there is growing evidence that animals may feed outside of known foraging grounds.
3. This short article reports on the first photographically documented evidence of bubble-net feeding by humpback whales in Australian coastal waters (n = 10 groups observed) and provides the first evidence of a second site in the southern hemisphere for the formation of ‘super-groups’ (n = 6 super-groups at discrete locations).
4. The formation of super-groups may be linked to changes in the type or density of prey available, either along the migratory route or in the feeding grounds of the previous summer. It is also possible that the increased population size following recovery make large group sizes while feeding more common. These findings strongly support evidence that feeding behaviour is not restricted to high-latitude foraging grounds in the Southern Ocean, and that prey consumption prior to leaving the coastal waters of Australia may be a significant component of the migratory ecology of this population.
5. Understanding how environmental variation influences the extent to which humpback whales depend on foraging opportunities along their migratory route, and where feeding occurs, will help to predict how future changes in the ocean will influence whale populations. This will also allow for more effective management measures to reduce the impact of threats during this important period of energy consumption.

     

Historical distribution of right whales in the North Pacific

Fisheries records provide some of the only information on pre‐fishing distribution and abundance for species that were depleted before the advent of modern scientific investigations. This paper interprets records of the early history of whaling for North Pacific right whales (Eubalaena pacifica). The current population occupies only a fraction of its historical range. Historical distributions of several whale species have been inferred from charts prepared by Matthew Fontaine Maury in the early 1850s and Charles Haskins Townsend in the 1930s based on data from American whalers’ logbooks. In the North Pacific, Maury’s chart has been interpreted to show that right whales occurred continuously across the entire basin. However, we find plotting errors when we compare the North Pacific chart to the corresponding data worksheets prepared for Maury (the ‘Maury Abstracts’) and the chart appears to have misled historians and biologists. Although these charts and those in the North Atlantic are wrong, the Maury Abstracts themselves appear largely consistent with the original whaler logbooks. Our analysis shows that right whales were likely not distributed continuously across the North Pacific, but instead had a pronounced longitudinally bimodal distribution and were encountered infrequently in the central‐northern North Pacific. This work shows how valuable information can be obtained by examining original source material. The American whaling logbooks are extensive and have been largely overlooked in studies of whale populations.     

A historical feeding ground for humpback whales in the eastern South Pacific revisited: the case of northern Patagonia,Chile

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Predicting the effects of whale population recovery on Northeast Pacific food webs and fisheries: an ecosystem modelling approach

The recovery of whale populations from historical depletion may have the potential to noticeably affect Northeast Pacific ecosystems and fisheries. Surplus production models based on whaling catch records were used to reconstruct the historical abundances of five large whale species in the waters surrounding Haida Gwaii, British Columbia. The results suggest that the local abundances of all five species were vastly higher before the onset of modern whaling. A comparison of ecosystem models representing the states of the local marine food web before and after full whale recovery indicates that abundant whales could consume large proportions of the annual production of their principal prey, ranging up to 87% for Pacific herring (Clupea pallasii) and 72% for piscivorous rockfish (Sebastes spp.). Dynamic modelling of the food web effects of whale recovery, including simulations of simultaneous top‐down and bottom‐up forcing and a Monte Carlo sensitivity analysis, revealed noticeable (～6–12%) top‐down effects on Pacific herring biomass owing to increased predation by humpback and fin whales. However, these effects cannot explain the magnitude of recent declines in local herring biomass. The dynamic modelling results also suggest that top‐down effects of whale recovery could result in reduced biomasses of large rockfish as a result of predation by sperm whales, as well as potential cascading effects on many demersal fish groups. These findings have numerous practical implications for ecosystem‐based fisheries management and whale conservation strategies in Northeast Pacific waters.     

Potential ship strikes and density of humpback whales in the Abrolhos Bank breeding ground,Brazil

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Longer migration not necessarily the costliest strategy for migrating humpback whales

1. Long‐distance migration is a demanding physical activity, and how well animals manage the associated costs will have important implications for their fitness.
2. The Oceania humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) population is recovering from past exploitation markedly slower than the neighbouring east Australian whales. The reasons for this are unknown, although higher energetic costs of longer migratory distances could be a possible explanation. Due to their fully aquatic lives, studying the energy expenditure of these large animals requires methods that do not rely on capturing the animal, such as bioenergetic models.
3. A state‐space model was fitted to satellite data to infer behavioural states for southern migrating whales. Travel speeds and behavioural states were used in a bioenergetic model to estimate the energetic cost of the migration phase. Relative differences in average duration, distance, and energetic costs were compared between migratory routes and distances.
4. Total energy used during migration was a trade‐off between cost of transport (determined by travel speed) and daily maintenance (determined by daily basal metabolic costs). Oceania whales migrating to the Amundsen and Bellingshausen Seas travelled fastest and furthest, 15 and 21% further than whales migrating to the d'Urville Sea (east Australian whales) and Ross Sea, respectively. Therefore, they had the highest cost of transport, 25 and 85% higher than for d'Urville Sea and Ross Sea whales, respectively. However, energy saved in terms of daily maintenance by using fewer days to complete a longer migration resulted in only a 6–7% increase in total energetic cost.
5. The results highlight that travelling further does not necessarily translate into an increase in total energy expenditure for migratory whales, since they can compensate for longer distance by travelling faster. Further research on the energetics of different whale populations could provide insight into the productivity of Southern Ocean feeding regions and help understand the environmental and anthropogenic effects on the whales' energy budgets.

     

From land and sea,long‐term data reveal persistent humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) breeding habitat in New Caledonia

1. Long‐term monitoring is a prerequisite to understanding and protecting long‐lived species such as cetaceans. In New Caledonia, South Pacific, an endangered sub‐population of humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) seasonally congregates for mating and nursing during the austral winter. For more than two decades, dedicated surveys have been conducted at sea and from land to monitor humpback whale presence in a coastal breeding site, the South Lagoon.
2. Methods were developed to investigate space use patterns and their temporal variations over the long term using a joint dataset of boat‐based and land‐based observations (1995–2017). A total of 2651 humpback whale groups were observed, including 1167 from land and 1484 at sea (of which 30% were initially detected by the land‐based observers).
3. Humpback whales displayed a persistent space use pattern over this 23 year period, consistent social composition over the years, and an increase in the group encounter rates from land and at sea. The core area of use by humpback whales was characterized in the austral winter by stable and relatively low sea surface temperature (22°C). Whales consistently occupied nearshore waters from 10 to 200 m deep and open to the ocean. Waters surrounded by dense coral reefs were avoided.
4. Although humpback whale distribution patterns were persistent and occurrence was found to increase over two decades, a mismatch between humpback whale critical habitat and marine protected areas was revealed. In the context of growing anthropogenic pressure from tourism and industrial development, these findings should be incorporated into local management efforts to protect the endangered Oceania humpback whale in one of its main breeding sites.

     

Effects of whale watching on the activity budgets of humpback whales,Megaptera novaeangliae (Borowski, 1781), on a feeding ground

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Whale‐watching trips in Peru lead to increases in tourist knowledge,pro‐conservation intentions and tourist concern for the impacts of whale‐watching on humpback whales

1. Since the implementation of the commercial whaling ban in the 1980s, whale‐watching has become the most important economic activity involving whales worldwide.
2. Whale‐watching is promoted as a platform for education and conservation awareness of marine biodiversity. In Peru, where cetacean species are still in jeopardy, whale‐watching may play an important part in promoting the protection of these species.
3. This study aimed to determine the degree of whale‐watching tourists' knowledge regarding cetacean ecology and conservation status and to evaluate if whale‐watching tours could serve as platforms for educating the public and raising conservation awareness.
4. The results of 196 closed‐ended questionnaires and 20 open‐ended interviews conducted before and after whale‐watching tours, during the humpback whale season (winter–spring 2014) in northern Peru, revealed an overall lack of knowledge concerning the presence of species of cetaceans in Peruvian waters and threats to marine biodiversity. However, after the whale‐watching excursion, participants said they would be more willing to change their behaviour with respect to cetacean conservation and marine environment protection.
5. This study suggests that whale‐watching platforms, when implemented with adequate interpreters, can serve as a source of environmental education and can raise conservation awareness. This is an important conservation strategy to consider in countries, such as Peru, where by‐catch and direct hunting are decimating local cetacean populations.

     

Site fidelity and movement patterns of short‐finned pilot whales within the Canary Islands: Evidence for resident and transient populations

1. The geographic location and oceanographic, physical, and chemical water properties make the Canary Islands one of the planet's biodiversity hotspots. The short‐finned pilot whale (Globicephala macrorhynchus) is one of the archipelago's most commonly encountered species and is potentially vulnerable to a range of anthropogenic pressures, including habitat degradation, acoustic pollution, fishing, whale‐watching operations, and shipping. Assessment of impact has not been possible because of a lack of even basic information about occurrence and distribution.
2. Spatial and temporal distributions, ranging behaviour, and residence patterns of short‐finned pilot whales were explored for the first time using survey and photo‐identification data collected in the Canary Islands between 1999 and 2012. In total, 1,081 pilot whale sightings were recorded during 70,620 km of search effort over 1,782 survey days.
3. Pilot whales were detected year round and distributed non‐uniformly within the archipelago, with greater densities concentrated in patchy areas mainly on the leeward side of the main islands. In total, 1,320 well‐marked individuals were identified, which exhibited a large degree of variability in site fidelity.
4. Different but not isolated subpopulations of pilot whales that share ranges and maintain social interactions were apparently present in the Canary Islands. Strong evidence of an island‐associated subpopulation was found, with a group of 50 ‘core resident’ individuals associated particularly with Tenerife. There were also ‘transient’ individuals or temporary migrants, which, probably driven by inter‐ and intra‐specific competition, may travel long distances whilst using the archipelago as part of a larger range.
5. These findings fill a major gap in the knowledge of this species’ occurrence, distribution, movements, and site fidelity in the archipelago and provide much needed data to allow the initiation of informed conservation assessments and management actions.

     

Ecosystem modelling to quantify the impact of historical whaling on Southern Hemisphere baleen whales

Many baleen whales were commercially harvested during the 20th century almost to extinction. Reliable assessments of how this mass depletion impacted whale populations, and projections of their recovery, are crucial but there are uncertainties regarding the status of Southern Hemisphere whale populations. We developed a Southern Hemisphere spatial “Model of Intermediate Complexity for Ecosystem Assessments” (MICE) for phytoplankton, krill (Euphausia superba) and five baleen whale species, to estimate whale population trajectories from 1890 to present. To forward project to 2100, we couple the predator–prey model to a global climate model. We used the most up to date catch records, fitted to survey data and accounted for key uncertainties. We predict Antarctic blue (Balaenoptera musculus intermedia), fin (Balaenoptera physalus) and southern right (Eubalaena australis) whales will be at less than half their pre‐exploitation numbers (K) even given 100 years of future protection from whaling, because of slow growth rates. Some species have benefited greatly from cessation of harvesting, particularly humpbacks (Megaptera novaeangliae), currently at 32% of K, with full recovery predicted by 2050. We highlight spatial differences in the recovery of whale species between oceanic areas, with current estimates of Atlantic/Indian area blue (1,890, <1% of K) and fin (16,950, <4% of K) whales suggesting slower recovery from harvesting, whilst Pacific southern right numbers are <7% of K (2,680). Antarctic minke (Balaenoptera bonaerensis) population trajectories track future expected increases in primary productivity. Population estimates and plausible future predicted trajectories for Southern Hemisphere baleen whales are key requirements for management and conservation.     

Global phylogeography of the smooth hammerhead shark: Glacial refugia and historical migration patterns

1. Extreme climate changes during the Cenozoic Era strengthened different biogeographical barriers that decreased the connectivity among populations, triggering lineage diversification of different species worldwide.
2. The mitochondrial DNA control region was employed to explore the phylogeography of Sphyrna zygaena, a globally distributed species threatened by unsustainable, illegal, unreported and unregulated fisheries triggered by the international shark fin trade. It is listed as ‘Vulnerable’ by the IUCN Red List and its trade is regulated by CITES Appendix II.
3. Only 13 haplotypes were found with low genetic diversity levels (hd = 0.686 ± 0.014; π = 0.00206 ± 0.00004) compared with other species of the Sphyrnidae family. The species has a very strong phylogeographic population structure among the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans (Φ_ST = 0.79132). Worldwide, there are six distinct populations with some haplotype sharing.
4. These populations are probably connected by a stepping-stone dispersal of a small number of migrants per generation from the Indo-Pacific towards the Atlantic. Modelling suggests that S. zygaena diverged into two lineages around 6.96 million years ago which have been isolated in glacial refuges in the Atlantic and Indo-Pacific oceans; and after deglaciation, a population expansion probably permitted secondary contact.
5. Conservation plans to establish differentiated management units should be adopted in each of the identified populations. Among these, the Eastern Central Atlantic and West Indo-Pacific are the most important areas for the species considering the historical migration routes that act as a bridge connecting the Atlantic and Indo-Pacific Oceans while the Gulf of Guinea connects the Atlantic populations. Still, further studies are required to know if these populations are also linked with nursery areas for the species.
6. The results herein can help to delimit the main evolutionarily significant units to implement effective policies to establish differentiated management units as starting points to genetic monitoring programmes for Sphyrna zygaena.

     

The future of marine citizenship is now: Cetacean conservation in the eyes of young Spanish citizens

1. The number of young conservationist movements is increasing worldwide, as new generations become more aware of the environmental problems that are having an impact on the planet. Consequently, young people appear to play a fundamental role in developing successful conservation strategies.
2. This research examines young citizens’ knowledge, attitudes and engagement in cetacean conservation in coastal and non-coastal regions of Spain, and assesses the influence of whaling tradition.
3. A total of 902 anonymous surveys were conducted with students between 14 and 16 years old at 10 high schools located in nine different study areas, six located along the Cantabrian coast (Southern Bay of Biscay) and three located in inland regions of Spain.
4. In general, results showed low levels of knowledge about cetaceans and whaling among young people, but high concern about cetacean conservation. As it was expected, knowledge about the history of whaling was higher in participants from areas with than without a whaling tradition. However, no statistically significant differences were found regarding attitudes towards cetaceans between these two groups.
5. Significant differences were detected between genders with respect to cetacean conservation and engagement. Females showed more positive attitudes towards cetaceans when compared with their male counterparts.
6. A correlation between knowledge and positive attitudes regarding whales and dolphins was found in areas located along the Cantabrian coast, and a correlation between positive attitudes and engagement in cetacean conservation was observed in all study areas.
7. Although the majority of participants showed strong support for the protection of whales and dolphins, less than two-thirds stated that they were willing to engage in cetacean conservation.
8. The results of this study may contribute to the implementation of improved marine education programmes. These programmes should not only raise awareness of the marine environment, but also promote pro-environmental behaviour and engagement in the protection of the ocean.

     

Southern right whale (Eubalaena australis), seasonal abundance and distribution at Head of Bight,South Australia

1. Seasonal trends in the distribution and relative abundance of southern right whales (SRWs) Eubalaena australis, were assessed in Australia's largest calving aggregation ground at the Head of the Great Australian Bight, in the Commonwealth Marine Reserve, South Australia. Annual cliff‐based surveys were undertaken between June and October from 1992 to 2016.
2. SRWs were primarily distributed in a 15 km by 2 km area within the 10 m depth contour (with 95% of whale sightings made within a 10 km² area). The distribution of SRWs at Head of Bight varied within an individual season but was consistent among the years. The composition of SRW sightings was 70% female–calf pairs and 30% unaccompanied whales.
3. Peak abundance occurred between mid‐July and end‐August for female–calf pairs and unaccompanied whales (juveniles or adults not accompanied by a calf), earlier than previously reported. A mean of 16% (range 8–28%, SD = 6.5, 95% CI = 0.15) of calving females were present at the site in mid‐June and a mean of 37% (range 13–61%, SD = 15.8, 95% CI = 0.37) remained at the site at the end of September.
4. Based on nearest‐neighbour distances of 150 m, the area occupied by 95% of SRWs at Head of Bight could reach carrying capacity at 68 female and calf pairs. Results suggest that the primary aggregation area at Head of Bight may have reached saturation capacity and that habitat expansion can be expected as the population increases.
5. This study provides information on SRW seasonal trends in distribution and abundance, timing of arrival and departure from the site and peak abundance periods relevant to application to conservation and marine park management.
6. As management requirements increase with a growing population, there is a need to complete an Australia‐wide assessment of SRW connectivity and habitat expansion.

     

Historical DNA as a tool to genetically characterize the Mediterranean sand tiger shark (Carcharias taurus,Lamniformes: Odontaspididae): A species probably disappeared from this basin

1. The sand tiger shark (Carcharias taurus) is a coastal species distributed in temperate and sub‐tropical waters, classified as ‘Vulnerable’ at global level and ‘Critically endangered’ in eastern Australia, south‐western Atlantic Ocean, and Mediterranean Sea. Six populations (north‐western Atlantic, Brazil, South Africa, Japan, eastern Australia, and western Australia) with low genetic diversity and limited gene flow were identified worldwide, but genetic information for many other geographic areas are still missing. Specifically, this species is listed in several reports as part of the Mediterranean fauna, even if there has been a lack of catches and sightings in recent years in this basin. To clarify the origin of C. taurus individuals caught in the past in the Mediterranean Sea, historical samples were genetically analysed.
2. Nine samples with certain Mediterranean origin were collected from different European museums. DNA was extracted and ~600 bp of the mitochondrial DNA control region were amplified using eight overlapping species‐specific primer pairs. Sequences obtained were aligned with all the haplotypes globally known so far.
3. Genetic analysis revealed the misidentification of one museum specimen. Among the remaining Mediterranean historical samples, three different haplotypes were recovered. Two of them previously observed only in South Africa and one described in both South African and Brazilian populations.
4. Results suggest a genetic relationship between Mediterranean sand tiger sharks and those from the western Indian Ocean. According to previous studies, we hypothesized that, during the Pleistocene, the cold Benguela upwelling barrier was temporarily reduced allowing the passage of C. taurus individuals from the Indian to Atlantic Ocean. After the restoration of this phylogeographic barrier some individuals were trapped in the Atlantic Ocean and probably migrated northward colonizing the western African coasts and the Mediterranean Sea.

     

Global population genetic structure of the sequential hermaphrodite,dusky grouper (Epinephelus marginatus)

1. The dusky grouper Epinephelus marginatus is a large epinephelid species that occurs in the eastern and south-western Atlantic and western Indian Oceans. Late maturity, protogynous hermaphroditism, site fidelity, and overfishing have all contributed to its demographic decline.
2. Connectivity and demography within a broad sampling of dusky grouper populations throughout its distribution were assessed. To do so, genetic variation at 11 polymorphic microsatellite loci and a partial sequence of the mitochondrial control region (mtCR) were evaluated.
3. Two major mtCR lineages with a sequence divergence of 1.6% were found. The magnitude of genetic differentiation for mtCR among north and south Atlantic and Indian Ocean populations was high, with Φ_ST = 0.528.
4. D_EST and results of discriminant analysis of principal component revealed significant microsatellite genetic differentiation between all collection areas. Significant pairwise D_EST showed moderate (0.084) to very great (0.603) differentiation. The effective population size was low for all localities, ranging between 25 (Azores Archipelago) and 311 (Rio Grande do Sul). The overall effective population size was estimated as 299 (confidence interval = 215–412), and there was no evidence of strong or recent bottleneck effects.
5. Local and regional genetic structuring among dusky grouper populations is the consequence of the species' site fidelity, distribution across multiple oceanographic boundaries, and probably also of sequential hermaphroditism that contributes to the intensity of random genetic drift.
6. The spatial pattern of genetic structuring of dusky groupers is such that fisheries management and conservation of population genetic integrity will have to be pursued at the local and regional scales.

     

A survey of public opinion in south‐west Scotland on cetacean conservation issues

• 1. In summer 2001, 252 members of the public in south‐west Scotland were interviewed to determine their awareness of, and opinions on, cetacean conservation issues in Scotland. Interviews were conducted in both rural island and coastal communities and a major city. Interviewees were also presented with a list of threats to cetaceans and were asked to gauge how serious they considered these threats to be for cetaceans in the waters of western Scotland.
• 2. Oil spills (43.7%), reduction in available prey (41.8%), marine litter (32%) and sewage bacteria (31.1%) were ranked by most members of the public as being ‘serious threats’.
• 3. Least concern was expressed in relation to whale watching: only 0.8% of respondents considered whale watching to be a serious threat and 51.2% thought that it posed no threat at all.
• 4. In relation to the other threats considered, there was a moderate level of concern about fishery by‐catches and pollution from aquaculture and land‐based sources.
• 5. Levels of concern about disturbance caused by quarrying, dredging and military activities were generally low, despite these factors having been raised by some as being conservation issues in west Scotland.
• 6. The majority of participants (69.4%) were aware of whaling operations currently being conducted by Japan and Norway. Almost all participants were against these countries hunting whales (96.4%).
• 7. Interviewees were also asked for their opinion regarding the level of protection currently afforded to cetaceans by the Scottish Government. Virtually no interviewee considered cetaceans to be overprotected in Scotland (0.4%). A substantial proportion were of the opinion that they are not sufficiently protected (45.6%). Of these, virtually all (94.8%) thought that legislation specifically for the protection of cetaceans in Scotland should be introduced.

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Distribution of whale shark (Rhincodon typus) off northern Peru based on habitat suitability

1. In the south‐eastern Pacific Ocean, few studies of whale sharks (Rhincodon typus) exist. In Peru, the northern coast has been identified as the area with the highest presence of whale sharks, yet their ecology in this area is poorly defined.
2. This study predicts the spatial distribution of whale sharks off coastal northern Peru (03°00′S–04°30′S) during La Niña and El Niño seasonal conditions, utilizing maximum entropy modelling. Between 2009 and 2018 (except for 2011), 347 whale sharks were geo‐referenced in northern Peru with greatest data recordings in the austral summer and spring during La Niña events.
3. Depth was the most important predictive variable for spatial distribution of whale sharks, followed by chlorophyll‐a. Sharks were predicted in shallower coastal waters in which chlorophyll‐a values are higher.
4. Habitat suitability was higher in the northern coastal part of the study area. Spring presents the most suitable environmental conditions for whale sharks, both during La Niña and El Niño conditions. The probability of whale shark presence in the north of Peru increases at higher chlorophyll‐a and sea surface temperature values. Therefore, whale sharks appear to aggregate seasonally in northern Peru, potentially exploiting rich foraging grounds.
5. In these areas of high suitability, whale sharks are susceptible to fisheries, bycatch, ship collisions, unmanaged tourism, and pollution; thus, management actions should focus in these areas.
6. This study represents a first step to understand the distribution and habitat suitability of whale shark in Peruvian waters. Further studies should identify suitable habitat for whale sharks in offshore areas. Also, these should focus on the connectivity of these aggregations with other localities in the south‐eastern Pacific in order to contribute to regional strategies for the conservation of this iconic species in this particular region.

     

From whaling to whale watching: Identifying fin whale critical foraging habitats off the Chilean coast

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