Cortisol treatment improves the development of hypoosmoregulatory mechanisms in the euryhaline rainbow trout,Salmo gairdneri

The effect of cortisol on osmoregulatory parameters was studied in rainbow trout, (Salmo gairdneri), kept in freshwater (FW) and/or transferred to seawater (SW). Repeated injections of 20 μg cortisol/g fish stimulated gill and gut Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase activity and reduced plasma Na⁺ and Cl⁻ levels after 2 weeks of treatment in FW-adapted fish. Cortisol doses of 0.05 and 1.0 μg/g were without effect. Repeated injections of 10 μg cortisol/g stimulated gill Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase activity and reduced plasma Na+ and Cl⁻ levels in fish in FW, and significantly improved ion regulation after their transfer to 28SW. Higher doses of cortisol (10 and 20 μg/g) induced hyperglycemia, whereas low doses (0.05 and 1.0 μg/g were without effect or induced hypoglycemia. Plasma glucose levels decreased in cortisol-treated fish transferred to SW, whereas transient hyperglycemia was seen in the control fish.     

Mitochondrial enzyme and Na+, K+-ATPase activity,and ion regulation during parr-smolt transformation of Atlantic salmon (Salmon salar)

Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) exposed to either simulated natural photoperiod (SNP) or continuous light (L24) were used to examine developmental changes in the presence and absence, respectively, of the parrsmolt transformation. Plasma osmolarity and ion concentrations were unaffected by photoperiod treatment. Gill Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase specific activity increased 150% between February and June in SNP fish and was low and unchanged in L24 fish. Kidney Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase specific activity varied within similar, narrow limits in both groups. Citrate synthase of liver, gill and kidney, expressed as specific activity or activity/g total body weight (relative activity), increased 25–60% between March and June in SNP fish. With the exception of kidney relative activity, citrate synthase activity declined to initial (March) levels by August. Liver, gill and kidney cytochrome c oxidase activity of the SNP group underwent similar though less marked changes. Liver, gill and kidney citrate synthase and cytochrome c oxidase activities of the L24 group remained relatively constant between March and August, and where significant differences occurred, they were lower than those of the SNP group. These results indicate that respiratory capacities of the liver, gill and kidney increase in smolls concurrent with preparatory osmoregulatory changes, and subsequently decline. The findings are consistent with a hypothesized transient increase in catabolic activity during the parr-smolt transformation that may be due to the metabolic demands of differentiation.     

Response of rainbow trout gill (Na++K+)-ATPase and chloride cells to T3 and NaCl administration

With the aim of comparing the effects of oral T₃ and NaCl administration on trout hypoosmoregulatory mechanisms, three groups of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss Walbaum) held in freshwater (FW) were fed a basal diet (C), the same diet containing 8.83 ppm of 3,5,3-triiodo-L-thyronine (T₃) (T) or 10% (w/w) NaCl (N) respectively for 30 d. They were then transferred to brackish water (BW) for 22 d and fed on diet C. Gill (Na⁺+K⁺)-ATPase activity and its dependence on ATP, Na⁺ and pH, number of gill chloride cells (CC), serum T₃ level as well as fish growth, condition factor (K) and mortality were evaluated. During the FW phase, as compared to C trout, T trout showed a two fold higher serum T₃ level, had unchanged gill (Na⁺+K⁺)-ATPase activity and increased CC number, whereas N trout showed higher gill (Na⁺+K⁺)-ATPase activity and CC number. At the end of the experiment the enzyme activity was in the order T>N>C groups and all groups showed similar CC number. Both treatments changed the enzyme activation kinetics by ATP and Na⁺. A transient increase in K value occurred in N group during the period of salt administration. In BW, T and N groups had higher and lower survival than C group respectively. Other parameters were unaffected by the treatments. This trial suggests that T₃ administration promotes the development of hypoosmoregulatory mechanisms of trout but it leaves the (Na⁺+K⁺)-ATPase activity unaltered till the transfer to a hyperosmotic environment.     

Transepithelial ion exchange in smolting atlantic salmon (Salmo Salar L.)

Whole-body (but predominantly gill) Na⁺ exchange, gill Na⁺/K⁺/ATPase activity and seawater tolerance were examined in juvenile Atlantic salmon during the smolting period. Transepithelial net Na⁺ gain decreased steadily from late February showing a net loss in April and early May, returning to approximate equilibrium in mid-May. This seasonal net loss of Na⁺ to the environment occurred slightly after maximal gill epithelial Na⁺/K⁺/ATPase activity and preceded maximal seawater tolerance. The results are discussed in relation to changes in gill permeability and salt intake via the diet.     

Enhanced hypoosmoregulatory response to growth hormone after cortisol treatment in immature rainbow trout,Salmo gairdneri

The growth-independent effect of ovine growth hormone (oGH) and oGH + cortisol treatment on seawater (SW) adaptation in immature rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri was investigated. Fish were injected every second day with saline, 2.0 μg oGH/g or 2.0 μg oGH + 8.0 μg cortisol/g for a maximum of 8 injections in freshwater (FW). Subgroups were transferred to 28‰ SW after 4 or 8 injections, and changes in plasma Na⁺ and Cl⁻, muscle water content and gill Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase activity were measured. In both of the hormone-treated groups retained in FW, gill Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase activity and interlamellar chloride cell density increased. The effects were most pronounced in the oGH + cortisol group after 2 weeks of treatment. After transfer to SW most of the control fish died due to the osmotic stress, whereas in the hormone-treated groups, mortality was low and there was a positive correlation between pretransfer gill Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase and the ability to maintain ionic-osmotic homeostasis after SW transfer. After two weeks of oGH + cortisol treatment, gill Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase activity was maximal. In contrast, after SW transfer, Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase activity increased further in the oGH-treated group. This group regulated ionic-osmotic parameters less effectively than the oGH + cortisol-treated group. The data indicate that GH and cortisol are important hormones in the regulation of hypoosmoregulatory mechanisms in S. gairdneri.     

Characterization of transport Na+-ATPases in gills of freshwater tilapia

Branchial plasma membranes from the freshwater cichlid teleostOreochromis mossambicus (tilapia) contain two Na⁺-dependent ATPases: Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase, and an amiloride-sensitive ATPase which is postulated to operate as a Na⁺/H⁺ (–NH₄ ⁺) ATPase. It is suggested that both enzyme activities are located in the basolateral membrane system of the chloride cells. K⁺ has opposing effects on the two enzymes: it stimulates Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase and inhibits Na⁺/H⁺ (–NH₄ ⁺) ATPase activity. Na⁺/H⁺ ATPase appears more sensitive to NH₄ ⁺ at low concentrations than Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase and the stimulatory effect by NH₄ ⁺ ions on the first enzyme could be important in facilitating NH₄ ⁺ excretion by tilapia gills under physiological conditions.In vitro maximum stimulation by NH₄ ⁺ is similar for the two enzymes (200%). In contrast to Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase, Na⁺/H⁺ ATPase activity is inhibited by supra-physiological (>20 mM) concentrations of NH₄ ⁺.     

Influence of salinity on the energetics of gill and kidney of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)

The effect of seawater acclimation and adaptation to various salinities on the energetics of gill and kidney of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) was examined. Smolts and non-smolts previously reared in fresh water were exposed to a rapid increase in salinity to 30 ppt. Plasma osmolarity, [Na⁺], [Cl^–], [K⁺] and [Mg⁺⁺] increased in both groups but were significantly lower in smolts than non-smolts. Gill Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase specific activity, initially higher in smolts, increased in both groups after 18 days in seawater. Kidney Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase specific activity was not affected by salinity in either group. Gill and kidney citrate synthase specific activity was not affected by seawater exposure in smolts but decreased in non-smolts. In a second experiment, Atlantic salmon smolts reared in fresh water were acclimated to 0, 10 or 30 ppt seawater for 3 months at a temperature of 13–14°C. Gill Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase was positively correlated with salinity, displaying 2.5- and 5-fold higher specific activity at 10 and 30 ppt, respectively, than at 0 ppt. Kidney Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase specific activity was not significantly affected by environmental salinity. Citrate synthase and cytochrome c oxidase specific activities in gill were slightly (6–13%) lower at 10 ppt than at 0 and 30 ppt, whereas kidney activities were lowest at 30 ppt. Oxygen consumption of isolated gill filaments was significantly higher when incubated in isosmotic saline and at 30 ppt than at 0 ppt, but was not affected by the prior acclimation salinity. The results indicate that although high salinity induces increased gill Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase activity, it does not induce substantial increases in metabolic capacity of gill or kidney.     

Lipid composition and microsomal ATPase activities in gills and kidneys of warm- and cold-acclimated sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.)

The response to cold of gill and kidney membrane lipid composition and microsomal (Na⁺+K⁺)-ATPase, Na⁺-ATPase and Mg²⁺-ATPase activities in reared sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.) was investigated. Fish acclimation was carried out according to the seasonal cycle from August to March. No cold-promoted increase in fatty acid unsaturation was shown in gill and kidney polar lipids and in total lipids of mitochondria and microsomes. In both tissues the (Na⁺+K⁺)-ATPase exhibited positive compensation for cold acclimation whereas the Na⁺-ATPase displayed negative compensation. The Mg²⁺-ATPase showed no compensation in the gills and positive compensation in the kidneys. During cold acclimation the break in the Arrhenius plot of the (Na⁺+K⁺)-ATPase decreased, whereas breaks of both the Na⁺-ATPase and the Mg²⁺-ATPase activities remained unchanged. The results indicate that the sea bass does not adopt membrane unsaturation as a cold-facing strategy. The cold-promoted enhancement of (Na⁺+K⁺)-ATPase activity in osmoregulatory tissues may be advantageous to maintain efficient osmoregulation under thermodynamically unfavourable conditions.     

Osmoregulation in juvenile Chinese sturgeon (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Acipenser sinensis</Emphasis> Gray) during brackish water adaptation

The osmoregulation capabilities of 7-month-old juvenile Chinese sturgeon (Acipenser sinensis Gray) (128.8 ± 15 g) transferred directly from fresh water (0‰, 46 mOsmol kg⁻¹) to brackish water (10‰, 273 mOsmol kg⁻¹) were studied over a 20-day period. Changes in serum osmolarity, chloride (Cl⁻), sodium (Na⁺), potassium (K⁺) and calcium (Ca²⁺) ion concentrations, as well as gill and spiral valve Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase activities were measured at 3, 12, 24, 72, 216 and 480 h after transfer to BW. The serum osmolarity and ion concentrations (Na⁺, Cl⁻ and Ca²⁺) increased immediately after the transference to BW, reaching maximum at 24 h and returned to a new steady state at 216 h, while the FW control group maintained basal levels which showed lower (P < 0.05) than the BW group. Gill Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase activity of BW group exhibited an abrupt decrease in the first 3 h after transfer, but began to increase at 3 h, reaching a peak value at 24 h, and returned to a new steady state at 216 h. The differences between gill Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase activity of BW and FW fish were significant (P < 0.05) after 12 h. In contrast, Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase activity of the spiral valve showed transient increase after transference from FW to BW, and then decreased rapidly at 3 h, reaching the lowest at 24 h after transference. At 216 h after exposure to BW, Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase activities of the spiral valve increased slowly to the levels of FW control. The results of our study indicate the existence of hyposmoregulatory adaptive mechanisms in 7-month-old juvenile Chinese sturgeon which enable this fish to acclimate itself successfully to brackish water.     

Biochemical and molecular differences in diploid and triploid ocean-type chinook salmon (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Oncorhynchus tshawytscha</Emphasis>) smolts

There is increasing evidence for complex dosage effects on gene expression, enzyme activity and phenotype resulting from induced ploidy change. In this study, ocean-type chinook salmon were bred using a 2 × 2 factorial mating design to create four families and test whether triploidization resulted in changes in growth performance and smolting. Eggs were pressure shocked after fertilization to create triploid fish from a subset of each family. In June, fish were sampled for size, plasma insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), gill Na⁺–K⁺-ATPase activity, and expression of two Na⁺–K⁺-ATPase α subunits in the gill. Diploids were significantly heavier than triploids, and there were significant differences due to family. Despite a significant positive correlation between plasma IGF-1 and fish size, plasma IGF-1 did not differ between diploid and triploid smolts. Diploids also had significantly greater gill Na⁺–K⁺-ATPase enzyme activities than triploids and there was a strong family effect. Gill Na⁺–K⁺-ATPase α1b isoform expression differed significantly by family, but not ploidy, and generally families with lower Na⁺–K⁺-ATPase enzyme activity had higher α1b isoform gene expression. Na⁺–K⁺-ATPase α1a isoform expression did not differ among any of the groups. Although diploids were larger and had higher specific activities of Na⁺–K⁺-ATPase in the gills, there was no difference in gene expression or circulating hormone levels. The strong family effect, however, suggests that strain selection may be useful in improving performance of triploids for aquaculture.     

The effect of dietary sodium chloride on some osmoregulatory parameters of the teleost, Oreochromis niloticus, after transfer from freshwater to seawater

The aim of this work was to determine the effects of supplemental dietary sodium chloride on salt water acclimation of tilapia Oreochromis niloticus. Fish were fed a basal diet supplemented with NaCl (8%) during three weeks in fresh water (FW) and then transferred to salt water (SW) at 15 and 20. Changes in plasma osmolality, chloride ion concentration (Cl^–), plasma level of cortisol and gill Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase activity were measured at 6, 12, 24, 48, 72 and 168 h after transfer to 15SW, while the higher strength SW group (20) was only monitored up to 24 h. Morphological changes in the gill mitochondria-rich (MR) cells were examined in relation to environmental salinity. The changes associated with dietary NaCl were sporadic and of small magnitude. The plasma osmolality and Cl^– increased immediately after transfer up to 12–24 h, but fish fed dietary salt (S) showed lower values than the control group (C). The S group showed higher plasma levels of cortisol than the control, which maintained its initial levels during the experiment. Gill Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase activity of the S group began to increase in the first hours after transfer, reaching maximum at 12 h and returned to basal level at 24 h, while the control group maintained basal levels. The differences between gill Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase activity of S and C fish were significant (p < 0.05) at 12 h. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) revealed that MR cells in SW show more mitochondria and a more developed tubular system arising from the basolateral membrane. The MR cells of both groups frequently formed a multicellular complex in SW, consisting of a main MR and one or more accessory cells. Such complexes are rarely observed in FW. Some MR cells of fish fed supplemented dietary salt displayed convex apical membrane in FW.     

盐度胁迫对三疣梭子蟹鳃Na+/K+-ATPase酶活的影响

通过钼蓝法测定三疣梭子蟹在3组实验盐度的胁迫过程中第2对和第6对鳃Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase酶活的变化,比较了3组实验盐度胁迫1 d时,鳃Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase的酶活大小。结果表明,在盐度胁迫初期,3组实验盐度下第2对和第6对鳃Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase的酶活下降;之后,各组实验盐度下第2对和第6对鳃Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase的酶活开始随胁迫时间增长而上升;最后,各组实验盐度下第2和第6对鳃Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase的酶活下降并趋于稳定。另外,胁迫1 d时,各组实验盐度下三疣梭子蟹前5对鳃Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase的酶活显著低于后3对鳃Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase的酶活。三疣梭子蟹对盐度变化的调节可分为被动应激期(酶活力下降)、主动调节期(酶活力逐渐上升)和适应期(酶活力稳定);三疣梭子蟹后3对鳃是离子转运、渗透压调节的主要部位。     

Sodium dependent ion transporters in trout gills

Biochemical procedures developed to isolate plasma membranes from the branchial epithelium of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) yield membrane fractions that are specifically enriched in the plasma membrane marker enzyme Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase. As the bulk of the branchial Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase is assumed to be confined to the mitochondria-rich chloride cells, such membrane preparations must contain the essence of the enzymatic machinery of the chloride cells. Basal Na⁺ activity in branchial (chloride) cells is around 10 millimolar and, accordingly, we find a K_m for Na⁺ of the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase of 13 millimolar, indicating that the enzyme may be regulated by changes in cytosolic sodium. The Na⁺-gradient across the serosal plasma membrane created by this pump provides energy for 3Na⁺/Ca²⁺-exchange and bumetanide-sensitive Na⁺/K⁺/2Cl^--cotransport. Here we further postulate the presence of a Na⁺/Cl^--cotransporter, indicated by thiazide-sensitive, bumetanide-insensitive transport of Na⁺ and Cl^-; this cotransporter activity awaits the characterization of its kinetics. The Na⁺/Ca²⁺-exchanger has kinetic characteristics compatible with a regulatory role of cytosolic Na⁺ in the activity of this carrier. Both Na⁺/Ca²⁺-exchange and Ca²⁺-ATPase activity may contribute to transport of Ca²⁺, the former having lower affinity for calcium but a higher capacity than the latter carrier. The Na⁺/K⁺/2Cl^--cotransporter has kinetics that favor a regulatory role for plasma K⁺ in the activity of this carrier. Seawater adaptation leads to increased activity of cotransporter molecules in the plasma membrane fractions (the activity increases relative to that of the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase) and this may reflect a function in Cl^--extrusion performed by the chloride cells in a seawater environment. A function for the cotransporter in the gills of freshwater fish may be the regulation of cell volume.     

Influence of cortisol, growth hormone, insulin-like growth factor I and 3,3′,5-triiodo-l-thyronine on hypoosmoregulatory ability in the euryhaline teleost Fundulus heteroclitus

The capacity of cortisol, ovine growth hormone (oGH), recombinant bovine insulin-like growth factor I (rbIGF-I) and 3,3,5-triiodo-l-thyronine (T₃) to increase hypoosmoregulatory capacity in the euryhaline teleost Fundulus heteroclitus was examined. Fish acclimated to brackish water (BW, 10 ppt salinity) were injected with a single dose of hormone suspended in oil and transferred to seawater (SW, 35 ppt salinity) 10 days post-injection. Fish were sampled 24 h after transfer and plasma osmolality and gill Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase activity were examined. Transfer from BW to SW induced significantly increased plasma osmolality but not gill Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase activity. Cortisol (50 g g^–1 body weight) improved the ability to maintain plasma osmolality and to increase gill Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase activity. oGH (5 g g^–1 body weight) also increased hypoosmoregulatory ability and gill Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase activity. A cooperation between oGH and cortisol was observed in increasing hypoosmoregulatory ability but not in increasing gill Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase activity. rbIGF-I (0.5 g g^–1 body weight) alone was without effect in increasing salinity tolerance or gill Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase activity. rbIGF-I and oGH showed a positive interaction in increasing salinity tolerance, but not gill Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase activity. Treatment with T₃ (5 g g^–1 body weight) alone did not increase salinity tolerance or gill Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase activity, and there was no consistent significant interaction between cortisol and T₃ or between GH and T₃. The results confirm the classical role of cortisol as a seawater-adapting hormone and indicate an interaction between cortisol and the GH/IGF-I axis during seawater acclimation of Fundulus heteroclitus.     

Osmoregulation in juvenile Siberian sturgeon (Acipenser baerii)

The osmoregulation capabilities of juvenile Siberian sturgeon exposed to three experimental osmolalities (22, 250 and 387 mOsmol kg⁻¹) were studied over a 45-day period. Growth performance, haematological parameters, ion concentrations, gill and spiral valve Na⁺-K⁺-ATPase activities, as well as gill and spiral valve histology, were measured. At the end of the period, the plasma osmolality of fish kept in 250 and 387 mOsmol kg⁻¹ was higher than that of fish kept in 22 mOsmol kg⁻¹. Similar trends were observed in electrolyte concentrations. Spiral valve and gill Na⁺-K⁺-ATPase activity varied with exposure time and environmental salinity. Shortly after being transferred to hyperosmotic media, spiral valve Na⁺-K⁺-ATPase activity fell, while gill Na⁺-K⁺-ATPase activity remained constant. At the end of the experiment, gill Na⁺-K⁺-ATPase activities in fish kept in isosmotic and hyperosmotic media had increased in comparison to those of the control fish. Moreover, spiral valve Na⁺-K⁺-ATPase activities recovered and were similar to those recorded in fish kept in hyposmotic environments. Although some of the morpho-physiological mechanisms were operational in juvenile Siberian sturgeon in their adaptation to hyperosmotic media, fish cannot be considered hyperosmotic regulators as they were unable to maintain their plasma osmolality and electrolyte equilibrium in salinities higher than 250 mOsmol kg⁻¹. This suggests that the culture of juvenile Siberian sturgeon in brackish environments is unlikely to be successful. However, our data indicate that in natural environments, juvenile Siberian sturgeon in migratory populations (Ob and Lena Rivers) would be able to migrate successfully into estuarine brackish grounds with a salinity of up to 9%. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Effects of 17β-estradiol and 4-nonylphenol on smoltification and vitellogenesis in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)

The impact of 17-estradiol (E₂) and the putative estrogenic compound, 4-nonylphenol (4-NP), on smoltification and vitellogenesis in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) was investigated during a 30 day period starting late April. Three groups of fresh water (FW) fish (1 year old, mixed sexes, average weight 23 g) were injected once a week with 50 µg (0.18 µmol) 17-estradiol, 3 mg (13.6 µmol) 4-nonylphenol dissolved in peanut oil, or peanut oil alone as control. Every ten days, subgroups were challenged with 28 ppt seawater (SW) for 24h, and sampled together with subgroups of FW fish. Treatment effects were examined on vitellogenic and osmoregulatory parameters. E₂ and 4-NP treatment increased the total calcium and protein level in plasma and the hepatosomatic index of FW fish, both indicating an activated vitellogenesis in the liver. The presence of vitellogenin in the plasma of 4-NP- and E₂-treated groups was further indicated by the appearance of a high molecular weight vitellogenin band (550 kDa) in electropherograms produced by native gel electrophoresis. This band appeared in exactly the same position in both the E₂- and the 4-NP-treated groups but could not be detected in controls. During the 30 day treatment period, control fish approached the peak of smoltification, as indicated by a distinct silvery appearance, decreasing condition factor, increasing levels of gill Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase and improved hypoosmoregulatory performance in the SW-challenge test. Both E₂ and 4-NP treatments significantly inhibited the progress of smoltification, as judged by a significant reduction of gill Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase activity, relative -subunit Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase mRNA expression, gill chloride cell density and a poorer hypoosmoregulatory performance of treated fish. The impaired SW-tolerance of E₂- and 4-NP-treated fish was strongly correlated with a decreased gill Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase activity. Despite a difference in relative potency, the present study shows that 4-nonylphenol and 17-estradiol may have qualitatively similar inhibitory effects on smoltification and hypoosmoregulatory physiology of Atlantic salmon. Both 4-NP and E₂ activated the vitellogenic system, and the study supports the hypothesis that sexual maturation and smoltification are antagonistic, developmental phenomena in salmon. It is suggested that the presence of estrogenic compounds in the environment may negatively influence smoltification and migration in wild stocks of salmon.     

Cortisol stimulates intestinal fluid uptake in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in the post-smolt stage

The fluid uptake rate of the posterior intestine of salmonids increases during the parr-smolt transformation. Intestinal fluid uptake in post-smolt Atlantic salmon was investigated after treatment with cortisol and growth hormone (GH), alone or together. Two replicate experiments were conducted in August 1991 and August 1992. Cortisol was emulsified in vegetable shortening and vegetable oil (1:1) and implanted into the peritoneal cavity. GH was administered as intraperitoneal injections in a saline vehicle on days 0 and 2. On days 5 and 6, plasma cortisol levels, gill Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase activity, andin vitro measurements of fluid transport rate (J_v) across the posterior intestine were measured. Implants of cortisol elevated the plasma cortisol levels within a physiological range, and resulted in elevated gill Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase activity, as expected. The fluid uptake rate across the posterior intestine was roughly doubled by cortisol treatment. GH treatment did not affect intestinal fluid transport, gill Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase activity, or plasma cortisol concentrations. The seawater-adapting increase in the rate of fluid uptake by the posterior intestine of smolting salmon is probably stimulated by elevated plasma cortisol concentrations.     

Osmotic adaptation of Oncorhynchus kisutch walbaum. I. Seasonal variations of gill Na+K+ ATPase activity in coho salmon,O+-age and yearling,reared in fresh water

An eventual improvement in salmonid production in sea water will depend on a fundamental understanding of the natural osmotic behaviour, which demands, in turn, the seaward migration of young salmonids and the development of osmoregulatory processes. Seasonal changes in the gill Na⁺K⁺ ATPase of coho salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch, were studied between February 1976 and August 1977, on two successive broods, O⁺-age and yearling, of the same origin and reared under natural conditions in a freshwater hatchery off the Brittany coast (France).The gill ATPase changes are of a rhythmical nature. The data show that a seasonal activation of the branchial Na⁺K⁺ ATPase affects one part of the population only. Both age groups, O⁺-age and yearlings, present two peaks of Na⁺K⁺ ATPase activity during the year, in the spring and in the fall, separated by a low activity period in summer and in winter. The peaks of ATPase activity in the fall (both groups) and spring (yearlings) correspond, roughly, with the equinox, whereas the spring rise of O⁺-age fish starts later on.The levels of gill ATPase activity are, probably, a function of the fish size for a given season, and the duration of Na⁺K⁺ ATPase activation may be affected by high temperatures of the late spring and thus may fluctuate from year to year. Yearly variations in branchial Mg²⁺ ATPase were evidenced in both groups; for the moment, these variations are impossible to correlate with the smolting process.Spring and autumn rises in the gill Na⁺K⁺ ATPase of coho salmon, in fresh water, indicate changes in the osmoregulatory physiology, that are preparatory to seaward migration.As a consequence, assays of gill ATPase activity can give aquaculturists some precise indications of the migratory tendencies in young fresh water salmon and thus the euryhalinity possibilities of the species at a given time.     

Physiology of seawater acclimation in the striped bass,Morone saxatilis (Walbaum)

Several experiments were performed to investigate the physiology of seawater acclimation in the striped bass, Morone saxatilis. Transfer of fish from fresh water (FW) to seawater (SW; 31–32 ppt) induced only a minimal disturbance of osmotic homeostasis. Ambient salinity did not affect plasma thyroxine, but plasma cortisol remained elevated for 24h after SW transfer. Gill and opercular membrane chloride cell density and Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase activity were relatively high and unaffected by salinity. Average chloride cell size, however, was slightly increased (16%) in SW-acclimated fish. Gill succinate dehydrogenase activity was higher in SW-acclimated fish than in FW fish. Kidney Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase activity was slightly lower (16%) in SW fish than in FW fish. Posterior intestinal Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase activity and water transport capacity (J_v) did not change upon SW transfer, whereas middle intestinal Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase activity increased 35% after transfer and was correlated with an increase in J_v (110%). As salinity induced only minor changes in the osmoregulatory organs examined, it is proposed that the intrinsic euryhalinity of the striped bass may be related to a high degree of “preparedness” for hypoosmoregulation that is uncommon among teleosts studied to data.