五指山地区海南苏铁种群结构特征与动态

海南苏铁是海南岛特有种和国家I级重点保护植物,对研究热带植物区系具有重要意义。受生境缺失及人为干扰等因素影响,海南苏铁在海南岛的种群数量呈缩减态势。采用种群年龄结构、静态生命表、存活曲线及种群动态量化分析等方法,对五指山地区不同生境下的海南苏铁种群进行了研究。结果表明:1)研究样地内的海南苏铁为稳定种群,低龄级和中龄级个体数占有一定的优势,但不同样地种群年龄结构存在一定的差异。2)静态生命表结果显示,3个样地整体上表现出随着龄级的增加高龄级个体数量减少的趋势,但样地A和样地B在幼龄级时有大量的个体数死亡。研究区内海南苏铁的存活曲线更趋近于Deevey-II型。3)种群动态量化分析结果表明,海南苏铁为低增长型的稳定种群,而样地A和样地B种群对外界干扰的敏感性要明显强于样地C。整体而言,五指山地区的海南苏铁种群当前仍处于一种稳定的状态。     

西双版纳石灰山季雨林四数木-闭花木-多花白头树群落动态研究

基于1995年和2011年固定样地调查数据探讨西双版纳四数木一闭花木一多花白头树群落种类组成、群落结构及优势种群个体数量方面的变化。分析显示,群落内高等植物种数净减5种（新增4种,消失9种）,热带分布型科、属比率分别上升7．3％和2％;A、B、C、D4层原有乔木（DBH≥5em）个体死亡率分别为0％、44．4％、16．3％和60％;A、132层乔木个体比例下降2．5％。乔木种群的频度分布格局和构造种群比例维持不变;群落乔木立木级结构保持正金字塔型,优势种群的立木级分布格局无明显变化。研究表明,该群落发育处于较为成熟阶段;15年来群落乔木的优势成分保持不变,群落总体结构稳定,草本层和层间植物的种类和个体数量减少明显;优势树种中,四数木和多花白头树2个种群趋于衰退,油朴有取代四数木或多花白头树在林冠层优势地位的趋势。     

濒危植物藤枣的生境与种群结构特征

[目的]探索藤枣生境及其种群数量、分布、结构及更新等特征。[方法]在藤枣主要分布地设置5块20 m×20m的调查样地,记录样地中所有胸径(DBH)≥1 cm的植物的物种名称、高度、胸径、及样地的郁闭度、海拔、坡度、裸岩覆盖率、距河流距离、土壤等环境因子,同时在样地中调查藤枣种群特征,分析藤枣藤枣生境地的林分因子、群落特征、生境特征及种群数量与更新。[结果]表明:藤枣生境地林分平均高、平均胸径、平均胸高断面积、林分密度分别为11.98 m、15.13 cm、41.42 m2·hm-2和1 205株·hm-2。群落平均物种丰富度为35.2,群落类型为热带雨林和季风常绿阔叶林;在大小级结构上,不同高度级和径级内物种丰富度和个体多度均呈单峰曲线,最高值均出现在第Ⅱ高度级和径级内,但第Ⅴ(H≥30 m)高度级和第Ⅵ(DBH≥100 cm)径级均有物种和个体分布。藤枣生境地平均海拔高度为1 107 m,坡度为陡坡,坡向则多数为阴坡,处坡下位置;林分郁闭度仅为76%,但距河流较近(31 m),并伴有一定的裸露岩石;土壤接近中性(p H=6.2),养分条件较好。在5块调查样地(面积20 m×20 m)中,共有藤枣28株,分布于19个样方,多数为单方单株分布。28株藤枣平均长度2.39 m,平均基径仅为0.74 cm,平均胸径为0.41 cm。其中,更新幼苗(H33 cm)为3株,占藤枣总株数的10.71%。[结论]藤枣分布地植物群落类型主要为热带雨林和季风常绿阔叶林,树木较高,树体较大,单峰曲线是其物种丰富度和个体多度在不同高度级和径级内的分布形式。生境地环境以高温高湿为主,土壤养分条件较好。28株藤枣分布于19个样方,多数为单方单株分布。藤枣幼苗数量较少,自然更新受限。     

海南尖峰岭60 hm~2大样地萌生植物数量特征

[目的]分析海南典型热带山地雨林分布区域尖峰岭60 hm~2大样地内萌生植物的物种组成、数量和空间分布特征,探讨其影响因素。[方法]以海南尖峰岭热带山地雨林60 hm~2大样地及样地内具有萌生现象的木本植物(胸径≥1 cm)为研究对象,统计样地萌生植物的萌生数和萌生率,并描述其空间分布特征。本文将植物的萌生现象分为两类:萌条和分支。[结果]表明:样地具有萌生现象的木本植物共有260种,隶属58个科142个属,科、属、种数量分别占样地植物总数的93.5%、91.6%与89.7%;萌生个体数最多的前5个物种依次是:九节、厚壳桂、卵叶新木姜、钟萼粗叶木、钮子果;除厚壳桂、尖峰岭锥外的其他植物,萌生现象对物种重要值的影响均不超过0.05%。植物的萌生现象与海拔极显著相关(P0.001)。[结论]作为尖峰岭热带山地雨林占优势的更新模式之一,萌生更新不仅是树种对生态位占据的重要方式,同时也对群落物种共存、生物多样性的维持起到重要作用。后期还可以对样地萌生现象受台风干扰后的表现进行分析。     

建始红椿种群结构及时间序列研究

对建始县2个不同人为干扰的红椿天然群落进行了样地调查,采用"空间替代时间法",将林木依胸径大小分级,对种群的龄级结构、动态指数和时间序列进行了分析,结果表明:2个种群结构除第2龄级外,趋势基本一致;T1种群在4和11龄级波动,T2种群在4和8龄级出现波动,Vpi均大于50%,种群为增长型。随时间推移,低龄级存活数量虽然在相应龄级有所增加,但总体趋势递减,老龄个体逐渐增多。对现存种群及生境保护,采取适当的人工林窗措施是红椿种群恢复的关键。     

凤阳山常绿阔叶林优势种木荷的种群结构与动态

[目的]对木荷（Schima superba）天然种群的种群结构和动态进行了分析预测,旨在阐明木荷种群结构与动态的变化规律。[方法]根据种群静态生命表、存活曲线、时间序列分析等方法,分析凤阳山保护区木荷种群的数量动态变化。[结果]木荷种群的年龄结构近似于倒“J”形,龄级Ⅰ和龄级Ⅱ个体占种群数量的比例较大。木荷种群趋于Deevey-Ⅱ型,其死亡率和消失率具有相同的变化趋势。在经历2、4、6、8个龄级后,种群个体数量均呈上升趋势。[结论]木荷种群为增长型种群。种群动态指数和受外界干扰时的动态指数均为正值,但对外界干扰敏感指数较高,暗示种群仍面临较大的外界干扰。     

湖北恩施桢楠林群落组成与结构

利用群落生态学方法对恩施桢楠林群落组成与结构进行调查分析.结果表明:恩施桢楠林群落物种丰富,共有维管束植物97科229属332种,含有单种植物的属较多,优势科主要有蔷薇科、禾本科、豆科、百合科.乔木层(DBH≥2.5 cm)优势树种明显,从个体数、平均胸径、胸高断面积和重要值分析来看,桢楠(Phoebe zhennan)在群落中占绝对优势地位.群落区系类型以热带成分较多,93属是热带分布,90属是温带分布.群落成层现象明显,可划分为乔木层、灌木层和草本层.样地内所有木本植物的径级分布呈峰型,表明群落正常生长;从主要树种的径级结构来看,桢楠、枫香(Liquidambar formosana)和杉木(Cunninghamia lanceolata)种群均为增长型或稳定型种群,群落更新良好,正渐趋稳定.灌木层植物种类最丰富,草本层次之,物种多样性大小顺序依次为灌木层＞草本层＞乔木层.     

天水小陇山红豆杉群落特征的生态学意义

[目的]红豆杉属植物对生境条件要求较严格,对外界环境变化和人为干扰较为敏感。研究其群落特征和生态位特征对了解群落动态和生境变化有重要意义。[方法]基于野外采样调查,对小陇山林区红豆杉群落的种属组成、数量、生活型谱和主要种群的生态位特征进行了研究。[结果]1.组成红豆杉林的植物共有64种,隶属于33科47属。乔木层的优势科为红豆杉科,灌木层的优势科为蔷薇科,草本层为莎草科;红豆杉群落物种多度分布呈倒J型;红豆杉群落生活型谱表现为地上芽植物高位芽植物地面芽植物地下芽植物一年生植物;2.红豆杉群落乔木层生态位宽度依次为红豆杉油松栓皮栎毛栗子侧柏青檀;红豆杉与其他种群之间重叠值小于伴生种之间的重叠值;红豆杉林各种群之间的生态位相似性比值Cih大于0.9的有16对,占57.15%,在0.7～0.8之间有9对,占32.14%,0.6～0.7之间有3对,占10.71%。人工红豆杉林油松对红豆杉的干扰程度较青檀大。     

湖北木林子保护区大样地的木本植物多样性

[目的]分析亚热带常绿落叶阔叶混交林大样地(森林动态监测样地)物种多样性特征,阐明亚热带常绿落叶阔叶混交林物种多样性的时空变化规律,为探索物种多样性维持、群落动态、环境异质性和生态系统功能调控机制等奠定基础。[方法]参照CTFS大样地建设与监测技术规范,于2014年在湖北木林子国家级自然保护区亚热带常绿落叶阔叶混交林中建立15 hm~2森林动态监测样地,调查并鉴定样地内DBH≥1 cm的所有木本植物,分析其物种多样性特征。[结果]15 hm~2大样地内共有木本植物228种84 189株,分属于112属61科,其中以10 cm为起测径级的木本植物130种11 863株,分属于71属44科;以30 cm为起测径级的木本植物67种1721株,分属于40属29科;以1 cm为起测径级和以10 cm为起测径级的木本植物在0~3 hm~2范围内物种数随取样面积的增大而快速增加,在6 hm~2时包含的物种数均超过了总物种数的80%,以30 cm为起测径级的木本植物在0~0.2 hm~2范围内物种数随取样面积的增大而快速增加,在8 hm~2时包含的物种数超过了总物种数的80%;样地内个体数量超过1 000的物种有18种,占样地所有物种数的7.89%,但个体数量之和占样地总个体数量的70.63%;样地上层乔木以小叶青冈和多脉青冈为主,中、下层的翅柃个体数量最多,重要值最大;样地内稀有种比例极高,有116种,占物种总数的50.88%,但个体数量仅占总个体数量的0.14%;群落物种组成中最主要的科为壳斗科和山茶科;样地中共有萌生木本植物137种18 880株,分属于76属42科,分别占样地总物种、个体数量、属及科数的60.1%,22.4%,62.8%和65.6%,其中,以10 cm为起测径级的萌生木本植物有64种,分属于43属26科,共计1 073株,以30 cm为起测径级的木本植物17种,分属于15属和9科,共计46株。[结论]木林子自然保护区亚热带常绿落叶阔叶混交林中木本植物种类丰富,主要由壳斗科和山茶科组成,稀有种及萌生物种所占比例高。该样地大量萌生物种的出现可能与保护区建立以前的人为干扰及区域特殊生境条件密切相关。     

海南尖峰岭国家级保护区青皮林资源与乔木层群落学特征

三分区位于尖峰岭国家级自然保护区,目前区内有海南岛保存最好的青皮林.根据1.38 hm2的样地资料,林分平均蓄积量高达469.773m3·hm-2;平均胸径28.6 cm,最大胸径143.3 cm;林木组成复杂,记载种类300多种.青皮为热带常绿季雨林的表征种和建群种,重要值为16.8,该种群的径级和年龄结构合理,具有反J曲线的正常增长型种群.聚类分析结果表明:属于典型热带常绿季雨林类型的青皮林群落分布在海拔300～650 m处,伴生树种有白茶、细子龙、野生荔枝等.调查区内有8种国家重点保护植物,其中坡垒为国家一级保护植物,青皮是关键种,该区的森林生态系统具有极高的保护价值.     

Improving the evaluation of multiple-dowel-type connection strength

Our study focuses on predicting the ultimate short-term load carrying capacity of timber-to-timber connections with dowel-type fasteners. The wide range of possible configurations in practice makes the resolution of these values by tests unrealistic. Moreover, different current regulations do not consider some specific failure mechanisms. In many countries, the reduction of resistance involved by this phenomenon is taken into account by considering an effective number of dowels (n_ef) smaller than the actual number of dowels (n) in the connection. However, these different regulations disagree on the values of n_ef and on other points (spacing, partial coefficient of security, formulas). These discrepancies in design rules invite the fundamental research on this topic and, therefore, new methods are sought in order to estimate the load carrying capacities of the connections. In the light of these, our approach consists of predicting the load carrying capacity with the neural network numerical tool. The results obtained by this analysis tool are satisfactory, although the model remains complex. Subsequently, we focus on the simplification of this numerical model with classical regression techniques in order to implement it in a design code.     

Decomposition and nutrient loss from prunings of different contour hedgerow species in tea plantations in the sloping highlands of Sri Lanka

Contour hedgerows of multipurpose tree species in the sloping tea lands of Sri Lanka are expected to reduce soil erosion and also add significant amounts of plant nutrients to the soil via periodic prunings. The objective of this experiment was to characterize the biomass decomposition pattern and quantify the amount of nutrients added through prunings of six tree species (Calliandra calothyrsus, Senna spectabilis, Euphatorium innulifolium, Flemingia congesta, Gliricidia sepium and Tithonia diversifolia) currently being used in hedgerows associated with tea. Withered leaf and stem prunings (50 g) were enclosed in 2-mm litter bags, placed at 5-cm depth and retrieved after one, three, six, nine and 12 weeks. Loss of initial dry weight, N, P and K was measured. Single exponential decay function adequately described both dry weight and nutrient loss. Tree species differed significantly in their rate of breakdown with decomposition constants (k) varying from 0.0299 to 0.2006 week⁻¹ for leaves and from 0.0225 to 0.0633 week⁻¹ for stems. Gliricidia showed the highest k for leaves with the rest in the following descending order: Senna > Tithonia ≥ Euphatorium > Calliandra > Flemingia. A similar pattern was observed for loss of all nutrients with Calliandra and Flemingia always having lower k values than the rest. Although N immobilization was not observed, immobilization of P and K was observed during the first week of incubation in some species, particularly in stem prunings. Annual biomass of prunings differed significantly between tree species in the following descending order: Calliandra > Senna > Flemingia > Tithonia > Gliricidia > Euphatorium. Calliandra added the greatest amount of nutrients annually to the soil with Euphatorium adding the least. Calliandra prunings provided the annual total K requirement and 49% of the N requirement of mature tea. However, none of the species provided more than 5% of the P requirement. It is concluded that among the tree species tested, Calliandra and Flemingia are the most suitable for contour hedgerows in tea plantations of this agroclimatic region because of their higher soil nutrient enrichment capacity and slower decomposition rates which would minimize leaching losses. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Ophiostoma</Emphasis> species associated with bark beetles infesting three <Emphasis Type="Italic">Abies</Emphasis> species in Nikko,Japan

Ophiostoma species were isolated from bark beetles and Abies mariesii, A. veitchii and A. homolepis attacked by the beetles in Nikko, Tochigi, central Honshu, Japan. One to two Ophiostoma species were frequently isolated from each species of bark beetle. Ophiostoma subalpinum was the most common associate of Cryphalus montanus. Ophiostoma sp. B as well as O. subalpinum was a common fungus associated with Polygraphus proximus. Ophiostoma europhioides was isolated from Dryocoetes hectographus and D. autographus as one of the common associates. Ophiostoma sp. J and Ophiostoma sp. S were frequently isolated from D. autographus and D. striatus, respectively. These fungi seem to have specific relationships with particular bark beetles. Ophiostoma sp. B, Ophiostoma sp. J and Ophiostoma sp. S have unique morphological characteristics and appear to be new species. Five trees of A. veitchii, approximately 43 years old, were inoculated with five Ophiostoma species to assess the relative virulence of the fungi. Ophiostoma subalpinum, Ophiostoma sp. B, and O. europhioides had relatively higher virulence than the other species studied.     

Potential to harness superior nutritional qualities of exotic baobabs if local adaptation can be conferred through grafting

Baobab leaves form an important part of the local diet in Sahel countries and elsewhere in Africa. Existing leaf nutritional data and agroforestry performance information are based solely on Adansonia digitata L., the baobab of continental Africa. The introduction potential of Adansonia species from the center of diversity in Madagascar and from Australia remains untapped. To assess this potential, the mineral contents and B₁ and B₂ vitamin levels of dried baobab leaves were determined for five-year old trees of A. digitata, A. gibbosa (A. Cunn.) Guymer ex D. Baum, A. rubrostipa Jum. & H. Perrier (syn. A. fony Baill.), A. perrieri Capuron and A. za Baill. grown in an introduction trial in Mali. Nutritional data were evaluated against survival and vigor to identify promising germplasm. Leaf vitamin and crude protein contents were highest in the Madagascar species, especially A. rubrostipa (B₁ 88 mg 100 g⁻¹, B₂ 187 mg 100 g⁻¹, protein 20.7% dry weight). However, the local species far outperformed the introductions in survival, tree height, basal diameter and resistance to termites. We suggest grafting as a way of harnessing the vigor of well-adapted local baobab varieties to the superior nutritional profiles of A. rubrostipa and others. Cross-species grafting tests in Adansonia were successful, thus creating new agroforestry possibilities with different scion/rootstock combinations.     

Rehabilitation of diseased cacao fields in Peru through shade regulation and timing of biocontrol measures

The objective of this case study was to test the effectiveness of biocontrol for the rehabilitation of abandoned, diseased (moniliasis, witches' broom and black pod) cocoa and to develop testable hypotheses regarding the effect of shade and biocontrol timing. Three trial fields differed in their shade regimes. Biocontrol was administered starting either at flowering or pod filling. Disease incidence and yield were compared with cultural control alone. Biocontrol reduced moniliasis from 49% to 25%, independent of the shading regime and application time. Witches' broom was most severe without shade and unaffected by biocontrol. No significant effects on black pod were observed. Although biocontrol increased percentage healthy fruit independent of shading and timing, only the shaded plot with biocontrol from flowering onwards responded with increased yield. Our hypothesis is: 'In the rehabilitation of abandoned cacao, only fields under sustainable shade management and early onset of biocontrol can realise their production potential.' This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Populations of adult fungus gnats and shore flies in British Columbia container nurseries as related to nursery environment,and incidence of fungi on the insects

Adult fungus gnat and shore fly populations were monitored in four container nurseries near Victoria, British Columbia. In general, populations of both insects were larger in summer than in winter. Also, both insects were more abundant in the nursery with a plastic-covered, soil floor, which favored moisture accumulation and build up of algae, liverworts and mosses, than in nurseries with other types of floors such as cement. Results of fungus isolations revealed that gnats and flies both harbor the seedling pathogens Botrytis cinerea and species of Fusarium and Phoma, plus several non-pathogenic fungi. The results are discussed in relation to nursery sanitation practices, their effects on gnat and fly populations, and some possible roles of these insects in seedling disease epidemiology.     

Pinus contorta growth in northern Sweden as affected by soil scarification

The aim of this study was to quantify the effects of different soil scarification methods on tree growth. Soil scarification influenced stem volume and stem biomass yield of lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta Dougl. var. latifolia Engelm.) in a 17-year-old field trial in boreal Sweden. Soil scarification (disc trenching, mounding and ploughing) resulted in an average stem volume yield of 3.1 and 34.2 m³ ha^–1 on the poor and intermediate sites, respectively, while corresponding values for no soil scarification were 0.9 and 16.7 m³ ha^–1. In comparison to no scarification, ploughing increased volume yields by 500% on the poor site and by 200% on the intermediate sites. The ranking according to stem volume yield was ploughing > disc trenching = mounding no soil scarification. Averaged over the two sites, the mean annual increment of stem biomass was 219% and 145% higher (in d.w., 0.26 kg and 0.34 kg per sample tree) after ploughing compared with no soil scarification, for the average and dominant sample trees, respectively. Although not significant, the increased growth rate after soil scarification decreased the average stem basic wood density of the sample trees with 1.6% and 5.3%, at the poor and intermediate sites, respectively. In conclusion, soil scarification significantly increased the 17-year stem volume yield compared with no scarification. The results also indicate that the difference in stem biomass yield between ploughing and the other methods, especially no soil scarification, will increase even more in the near future.     

Parasitic Ichneumonoidea on the horse chestnut leaf miner, Cameraria ohridella (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) in Slovakia

Parasitic Hymenoptera from the suprafamily Ichneumonoidea attacking the horse chestnut leafminer Cameraria ohridella Deschka & Dimic (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) were studied in southwest Slovakia during 2000 and 2001. The search for such species resulted in the determination of eight ichneumonid species, Gelis agilis (Fabricius), Itoplectis alternans (Gravenhorst), I. clavicornis (Thompson), I. maculator (Fabricius), Scambus annulatus (Kiss), S. brevicornis (Gravenhorst), Zatypota percontatoria (Müller), Adelognathus sp. and a braconid Colastes braconius Haliday. The most abundant species was S. annulatus. All these species recorded are polyphagous and often facultative hyperparasitoids, except C. braconius, which departs from this norm in not being hyperparasitic. The presence of more diversified native parasitoids and hyperparasitoids from the Ichneumonoidea predicate a slow successive adaptation of the parasitoid fauna to the invasive host, Cameraria ohridella.     

The potential use of different predatory bug species in the biological control of<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Frankliniella occidentalis</Emphasis> (Pergande) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

In the present study, the suitability of different predatory bug species, such as Dicyphus tamaninii Wagner, Macrolophus pygmaeus (Rambur), Orius albidipennis Reuter, Orius majusculus Reuter and Orius sauteri Poppius, for the biological control of Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), were investigated. Development of the predatory bug species, their reproduction as well as their daily and total prey consumption over a 18-day period with F. occidentalis larvae or various stages of Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae) individuals as prey species were studied during the experiments in the laboratory. In further experiments, the efficiency of D. tamaninii, M. pygmaeus, O. albidipennis and O. majusculus in controlling F. occidentalis under glasshouse conditions was investigated. Results showed that all the predators could develop under the experimental conditions with either F. occidentalis larvae or different stages of T. urticae as prey. When F. occidentalis larvae were offered as prey, the shortest duration of development was observed for O. albidipennis with a mean of 17.7 days, while D. tamaninii took the longest to develop with a mean of 36.3 days. With different stages of T. urticae as prey, the duration of development ranged from 19.3 days in O. albidipennis to 42.9 days in M. pygmaeus. Mean daily fecundity ranged from 0.8 eggs/female for O. majusculus to 2.2 eggs/female for O. sauteri with F. occidentalis larvae as prey and from 0.6, O. majusculus, to 2.3 eggs/female/day, O. sauteri, when different stages of T. urticae were offered as prey. Over the 18-day reproduction period, O. sauteri was the most fecund predatory species, laying a mean total of 31.6 and 31.3 eggs/female with F. occidentalis and T. urticae as prey, respectively. Daily consumption from F. occidentalis larvae ranged between 5.5 individuals consumed per day by O. majusculus and 29.1, by O. sauteri. When different stages of T. urticae were offered as prey, maximal consumption was observed in D. tamaninii with a mean of 29.0 individuals/day, while O. albidipennis consumed the least with an average of 8.1 preys/day. Over the 18-day prey consumption period, D. tamaninii consumed the highest mean number of 422.8 F. occidentalis larvae, while O. majusculus only consumed 98.8 larvae. Also, D. tamaninii had the maximum consumption of different stages of T. urticae with a mean of 522.4, while M. pygmaeus and O. albidipennis consumed the least, with an average of 146.1 and 146.0, respectively. The predatory bugs D. tamaninii, M. pygmaeus, O. albidipennis and O. majusculus significantly reduced the density of F. occidentalis on hybrids of Euphorbia milii, Serissa foetida and Saintpaulia ionantha in the glasshouse, which confirms their efficiency against this pest on different hosts under controlled climatic conditions.     

Root diseases in bareroot and container nurseries of the Pacific Northwest: epidemiology, management, and effects on outplanting performance

In forest and conservation nurseries in the Pacific Northwest USA, seedling production can be limited by root diseases caused by fungi in the genera Fusarium Link:Fr., Cylindrocarpon Wollenw., Phytophthora de Barry, and Pythium Pringsh. Fusarium, Cylindrocarpon, and Pythium are the most ubiquitous, whereas incidence of Phytophthora is mostly associated with coastal bareroot nurseries. All of these root pathogens are encouraged by water saturated soils or media. Seedlings infected with Fusarium, Phytophthora, or Pythium often appear chlorotic or necrotic with extensive root decay. Cylindrocarpon often causes serious root decay without shoot symptoms. The best approach to mitigate losses from these diseases is to use a holistic integrated pest management program. This program should combine chemical controls with cultural practices, particularly those that increase soil permeability and drainage and reduce potential sources of inoculum, especially by disinfesting seeds and containers reused for crops. In general, we found that seedlings meeting nursery specifications for outplanting on forest soil (proper height, root collar diameter, healthy shoot color, lack of disease symptoms) but having these disease organisms on their root systems perform as well as non-infected seedlings.