Evaluation and modelling of perpendicular to grain embedment strength

Different test setups for determining perpendicular to grain embedment strength of timber have been reported in literature. In addition, different definitions of strength have been used associated with the deformation level underneath the fastener. It is shown that all reported experimental results can be related, which enables comparison on a common basis. Furthermore, several models for embedment strength perpendicular to the grain which primarily depend on timber density (specific gravity) and fastener diameter are evaluated. It is shown that the model currently prescribed by the European structural timber design code [Comité Européen de Normalisation (CEN) EN 1995-1-1: 2004: Eurocode 5—design of timber structures. Part 1.1: general rules and rules for buildings. CEN, Brussels, 2004] is unable to accurately predict the strength and an alternative is proposed. This may result in more reliable timber connections in applying the European Yield Model to determine the connection strength.     

非胶合条件下松木直角榫卯接合的抗拉力

通过拉伸试验研究了非胶合状态下,木材直角榫卯构件配合间隙、榫头长度和榫卯纹理方向等参数,对榫卯连接节点抗拉力的影响.结果表明:木材直角榫卯构件在拉伸过程中的抗拉力-行程曲线可分为2段,即快速线性上升和近似直线缓慢下降段;在一定范围内,构件抗拉力随着过盈配合公差的增加、榫头长度的延长而提高;同等条件下,榫卯纹理方向一致时的抗拉力要高于榫卯纹理方向直交时.     

Shear behaviour of bond lines in glued laminated timber beams at high temperatures

A comprehensive research project has been carried out at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) on the fire behaviour of timber-concrete composite slabs (Frangi and Fontana 2000). The glued laminated timber beams used for the fire tests were bonded with a one-component polyurethane (1-K-PUR) adhesive. As one fire test on a slab showed an unexpected shear failure of a glued laminated timber beam, a series of tests was carried out to study the shear behaviour of different types of adhesives at high temperatures. The first part of the paper describes the results of the shear tests at elevated temperatures, in the second part the shear test results are compared to the fire test on a slab.     

Mechanical behaviour of finger joints at elevated temperatures

Finger joints are commonly used to produce engineered wood products like glued laminated timber beams. Although comprehensive research has been conducted on the structural behaviour of finger joints at ambient temperature, there is very little information about the structural behaviour at elevated temperature. A comprehensive research project on the fire resistance of bonded timber elements is currently ongoing at the ETH Zurich. The aim of the research project is the development of simplified design models for the fire resistance of bonded structural timber elements taking into account the behaviour of the adhesive used at elevated temperature. The paper presents the results of a first series of tensile and bending tests on specimens with finger joints pre-heated in an oven. The tests were carried out with different adhesives that fulfil current approval criteria for the use in load-bearing timber components. The results showed substantial differences in temperature dependant strength reduction and failure between the different adhesives tested. Thus, the structural behaviour of finger joints at elevated temperature is strongly influenced by the behaviour of the adhesive used for bonding and may govern the fire design of engineered wood products like glued laminated timber beams.     

胶合木-钢夹板螺栓连接滞回性能试验

【目的】为探明胶合木-钢夹板螺栓连接的动力性能和抗震性能,确保连接件在车辆、机械振动等动力荷载下的可靠性。【方法】针对胶合木-钢夹板螺栓连接的构造特点,考虑胶合木厚度和螺栓直径之比(厚径比)、螺栓顺纹间距、螺栓并列和错列布置方式等参数的影响,设计制作了4类13组共39个胶合木-钢夹板螺栓连接件,在低周反复荷载作用下进行滞回性能试验。【结果】试验结果表明:在单螺栓连接中,连接部位的破坏模式逐渐由"螺栓刚直"向"双铰"转化,胶合木销槽破坏模式逐渐由销槽整体承压破坏向两端部挤压破坏转变,试件滞回曲线基本都呈现饱满的弓形和棱形,具有良好的耗能能力和抗震性能,但其承载能力较低。在多螺栓连接中,螺栓和胶合木的破坏模式分别以"双铰"破坏和销槽端部挤压破坏为主,试件滞回曲线均呈现饱满棱形,该类试件在承载能力、抗震性能和耗能能力上均有大幅提升;随着螺栓顺纹间距的增大,试件的承载能力不断增大,但螺栓顺纹间距在200 mm时,极限荷载增幅趋于平缓,初始刚度增涨大幅放缓,且整体刚度退化与螺栓顺纹间距为250 mm时基本相同;螺栓并列布置滞回曲线饱满程度好于错列布置;螺栓双排布置承载能力比单排布置的承载能力更高,刚度退化更小。【结论】胶合木-钢夹板螺栓连接具有较好的耗能能力、抗震性能及延性性能;螺栓顺纹间距在200 mm时,抗震性能最佳;螺栓错列布置的抗震性能比并列要好,螺栓双排布置的抗震性能更优越。     

Estimation of stiffness and strength in timber knee joints with adhesive and verification by experiment

The use of adhesive joints is gradually increasing, especially those with glued-in steel rods (GIRs). There are, however, some problems with the design methods when used for moment-transmitting applications. In this article, design methods for GIRs and cross-lapped glued joints (CLJs) are proposed. For CLJs, we made a hypothesis that both rotational deformation of CLJ and stress of the glue line occurred with bending and shearing deformation of the timber. Using this hypothesis and Kelvin’s theorem, a mechanical model of CLJ is proposed. For GIRs, the axial stress component of the rod and the lateral stress component of the rod were taken into account using the theory of a beam on an elastic foundation. From the comparisons between calculations and experimental results, it was recognized that the stiffness and strength of CLJs and GIRs could be predicted precisely using our proposed models.     

Estimation of shear strength of dowel-type timber connections with multiple slotted-in steel plates by European yield theory

The shear strength of dowel-type timber connections with multiple slotted-in steel plates was estimated based on European yield theory. The values calculated based on the yield theory were compared with experimentally obtained results. An experiment was performed on dowel-type timber connections with two and three slottedin steel plates under lateral loads parallel to the grain. The yield mode of the dowel-type connection assumed in this study corresponds approximately to the failure mode of the connection obtained from the experiment. The shear strength of the dowel-type connections calculated based on the yield theory showed good agreement with the results for shear strength obtained in the experiment. The yield theory was useful for estimating the shear strength of the doweltype connection with multiple slotted-in steel plates. The shear strength of the dowel-type connection was greatly affected by the spacing of the steel plates, the number of steel plates, and the timber thickness. The values of these parameters that showed the proper shear strength of the dowel-type connection could be estimated based on the yield theory. Part of this paper was presented at the 9th Timber Engineering Forum of the Japan Timber Engineering Society, December 2005     

Application of the vibration method with additional mass to timber guardrail beams

This study examined whether or not weight, density, and Young’s modulus can be accurately measured by vibration test without weighing beams for timber guardrails. Bending vibration tests with and without the concentrated mass were performed on small clear round bars without the pith of spruce and cedar and on actual size round bars with the pith of cedar for the timber guardrail. The following results were obtained. The vibration method with additional mass could be applied to the round bar as well as the rectangular bar. It is possible that resonance frequency was decreased by the sawn split in the horizontal tapping. It is believed that the free ends condition is easier to realize than the fixed ends condition for cross beams for timber guardrails. The weight of the cross beam for the timber guardrail could be accurately estimated by the vibration method with additional mass under several testing conditions.     

环氧沥青混合料钢桥面铺装复合结构试验研究

针对某钢箱梁桥大交通量、重车比例高和夏季高温的具体情况和特点,采用环氧沥青混合料为钢桥面铺装,开展以带钢板的环氧沥青混合复合梁为研究对象的一系列试验。其中拉拔试验为测试疲劳过程对钢桥面铺装黏结层的影响;60℃时超载40%和60%两种超载荷载的疲劳试验为测试最佳疲劳油石比所对应的环氧沥青混凝土铺装的高温抗超载疲劳性能;极限弯曲试验用于确定复合梁试件的极限承载力;变温度变荷载疲劳试验用于预测钢桥面环氧沥青混凝土铺装在设计使用年限内所表现的性能或铺装层的使用寿命。试验结果表明所设计的环氧沥青混凝土铺装具有较强的抗高温超载疲劳能力,同时对荷载是十分敏感的。该铺装结构在正常的使用条件下可以满足设计使用要求。     

Relationship between clamp force and pull-out strength in lag screw timber joints

This study empirically examines the relationship between clamp force and pull-out strength in lag screw joints of timber members, using data obtained in tightening tests and pull-out tests. Maximum clamp force per unit screw length as determined from the tightening tests was lower than the lower bound for the 95% tolerance range for pull-out strength per unit screw length as determined from the pull-out tests. Moreover, X-ray CT (computed tomography) observations of anchor members from both tests revealed that failure behavior clearly differed between the tightening test and the pull-out test: tightening caused damage to the wooden, female thread in addition to major splitting damage in the wood perpendicular to the grain near the tip of the lag screw.     

Experimental and numerical investigations on adhesively bonded timber joints

Adhesively bonding of timber structural elements provides new opportunities as it is well adapted for the anisotropic and fibrous nature of the material. Experimental and numerical investigations were carried out on adhesively bonded full-scale double-lap joints composed of timber adherends (spruce) and adhesive layers. The influence of different geometric parameters and adhesives on the joint strength was studied. The investigated geometric parameters were the thickness of the adhesive layer (0.5–2.0?mm), the overlap length (40–280?mm), and the ductility of the adhesive (using three different adhesives). It was found that the joint strength was independent of the adhesive layer thickness (for the thickness range investigated) that the joint strength increased with the overlap length up to an apparent maximum of approximately 200?mm and that strength was almost independent of the adhesive stiffness. The numerical investigation was in good agreement with the experimental results and allows for the model to be used for strength prediction of the investigated joints.     

云杉胶合木钢板斜螺钉连接的剪切性能研究

为准确评价斜螺钉连接钢 木节点的剪切性能,探明其受力机理,以云杉胶合木、钢板和自攻螺钉作为研究材料,测试不同荷载方向与受力情况下斜螺钉连接节点的承载性能,将试验数据与国外规范中的计算模型进行对比,提高了侧边钢板 胶合木(钢 木)斜螺钉连接节点承载性能的预测能力。结果表明:自攻螺钉与剪切面之间的角度变化对其在钢 木节点承受剪 压复合应力的承载力影响不明显,当偏转为剪 拉复合应力时,节点承载力明显增大,并在30°~45°获得最大值;剪 压复合应力时,现行EC5公式计算剪 压节点的极限承载力非常不安全;EC5的刚度预测结果在剪 压复合应力区和垂直剪切面钉入时,与试验值吻合度很高,但对剪 拉区节点的滑移模量没有预测性;将Tomasi模型应用于斜螺钉连接钢 木节点滑移模量理论计算时,在45°~90°时与试验值吻合度极高。单颗自攻螺钉的抗拔刚度计算节点滑移模量的方法极为有效,具有较高的借鉴意义。     

浅谈木材用胶粘剂的发展

介绍了胶粘剂的概念、组成、种类以及人造板工业中用得最多的三种胶粘剂：脲醛树脂、酚醛树脂和三聚氰胺树脂，阐明了天然胶的复苏情况和生物技术利用在木材胶粘剂的现状，并对木材胶粘剂的发展趋势进行了展望。     

空心胶合木柱轴心受压性能研究

【目的】节能环保理念越来越受关注,木材作为绿色环保的可再生建筑材料可应用在工程中,目前国内木建筑中应用的木柱主要局限于原木圆柱,为了提高木材利用率,同时降低成本,改善受力性能,满足工程需要,提出一种新型的空心胶合木柱,并进行试验研究分析。【方法】使用相同尺寸拱形锯材作为骨架,利用环氧树脂胶粘剂进行胶合,制作3根空心胶合木柱试件进行轴心加载受压试验,研究空心胶合木柱的轴压力学性能,在试验过程中通过仪器记录应变、应力和位移等数据,主要分析木柱的竖向与横向应变、竖向与侧向位移、稳定承载力等特性,并利用ABAQUS有限元软件进行建模对比分析,探讨木柱最终破坏特征。【结果】空心胶合木柱破坏形态主要是整体压屈破坏,达到极限荷载80%左右时,承载能力快速下降,侧向位移随荷载增加而迅速增大,加载过程中存在多个增长台阶;与同截面积原木圆柱比较,理论承载力提高了4.3%,计算得承载能力稳定系数为0.9,材料缺陷对轴心承载力有影响;通过有限元建模分析,材料在弹性阶段理论值与试验值吻合程度较好。【结论】空心胶合木柱应用在实际工程中是可行的,能够满足工程使用需求,充分利用小型锯材,提高了木材利用率,降低了成本,相较于原木圆柱受力性能更好。     

A new proposal to reinforce planked timber shear walls

Timber is one of the most common materials used in traditional buildings worldwide. Our previous research has suggested that timber shear walls play an important role in resisting external loadings, such as earthquakes. Thus, improving the structural performance of in-filled shear walls can also improve that of the entire structure. In the traditional Taiwanese timber shear wall system, the embedment strength of beams and friction between wooden planks and beams significantly affect the strength of the shear wall. This article proposes a new method of reinforcing traditional timber shear walls in Taiwan by inserting teak and padauk strips into the grooves between wooden planks and beams to increase the embedment strength of beams and the friction between wooden planks and the hardwood strips. A total of 18 full-scale specimens were tested under reversed cyclic loading. The results revealed that the strength and energy dissipation capacities of a wooden shear wall can be significantly increased by inserting teak and padauk strips into the grooves between planks and beams. Furthermore, the simplified calculation method proposed in this study can be used to calculate the strength of both reinforced and unreinforced wooden shear walls with satisfactory agreement.     

A multiple fracture test for strain to failure distribution in wood

The tensile strain to failure of small wood samples is a desirable property in studies where the effect of small differences in microstructure on failure is of interest. However, the scatter in data is usually significant and only one data is obtained per specimen. For this reason, a new multiple fracture test for measurement of the strain to failure distribution was designed. Wood samples were bonded between two transparent PVC layers with higher strain to failure than the wood. Multiple fractures were then observed in single wood samples during tensile loading. This behavior is already utilized in tests in the field of synthetic composite materials. It was possible to conveniently register multiple fracture events as a function of strain by visual observation through the transparent PVC layers. The data were used to compare two different wood materials and to determine their Weibull distribution functions.Financial support from SJFR is gratefully acknowledged     

Probabilistic strength prediction of adhesively bonded timber joints

The strength prediction of adhesively bonded timber joints is difficult due to the anisotropic and brittle nature of the adherends, the complex stress distribution as well as the uncertainties regarding the associated material resistance. This paper describes a probabilistic method for the strength prediction of balanced double lap timber joints. The method considers the statistical variation and the size effect in the strength of timber using a Weibull statistical function. The design method presents an explanation for the increased resistance of local zones subjected to high stress peaks as it takes into account not only the magnitude of the stress distributions, but also the volume over which they act. The predicted joint strengths are slightly underestimated compared with the experimental results due to inaccurate upper tail modelling of the material strength by the Weibull statistical distribution. The probabilistic method provides reasonable results for brittle joint failure and has immediate application in the design of adhesively bonded timber joints.     

Time-variant reliability of timber beams according to Eurocodes considering long-term deflections

ABSTRACT

In order to achieve a consistent level of failure probability, structural design codes are optimized using probabilistic methods. This optimization process traditionally focuses on the ultimate limit states (ULS). However, in the design of timber structures the performance of the structural members is often governed by the serviceability limit state (SLS) associated with different load levels than applied in the ULS. The probability of serviceability failure is strongly dependent on the loading sequence and the time-dependent response of timber; therefore, a time-variant probabilistic model is recommended to estimate them properly. This study aims to investigate the time-dependent reliability for long-term deflections of timber office and residential floor beams according to the specifications of the Eurocodes. A simple creep model is used to calculate the deflections and Monte Carlo simulation is carried out to determine the reliability index. It was found that the creep factor and the suggested deflection limits given in Eurocode 5 might not be appropriate to achieve the expected target reliabilities. To obtain a more consistent reliability, more suitable values for the mentioned parameters were suggested. However, the primary aim was to present a framework to determine appropriate deflection limits for structural codes.     

On mechanical behavior of traditional timber shear wall in Taiwan I: background and theory derivation

The objectives of this study were to explore the mechanical behavior of traditional timber shear walls in Taiwan and to propose a theoretical model to predict their lateral force resistance. An extensive field investigation was conducted, and the dimensions, tectonic detail, and materials used were recorded. The data collected were used as the reference for theoretical derivation and experimental design. In the theoretical model, the moment resistance of entire shear walls was derived from the contributions of the moment-resisting capacity supplied not only by embedment and friction action between board units and beams but also the dowel action of bamboo nails. Timber shear walls with various geometric conditions and material properties are considered. The theoretical model demonstrated in this study can be used to predict the mechanical behavior of timber shear walls and will be verified by experiments in our next article.