武夷山自然保护区森林生态系统服务功能价值评估

使用市场价格替代法、机会成本法和影子工程价格法等评估方法,对武夷山自然保护区森林涵养水源、保持土壤、净化空气、固碳制氧、休闲游憩等服务功能进行了初步估算。得出该地区森林生态系统的涵养水源价值为2.28亿元/a,保持土壤价值为7 553.23万元/a,固碳制氧价值为2.46亿元/a,净化空气价值为1.69亿元/a,休闲游憩价值为6.34亿元/a。森林生态系统服务功能的总价值为13.53亿元/a。     

昆明西山森林公园生态系统服务功能价值评估

以西山森林公园森林生态系统为研究对象,依据《森林生态系统服务功能评估规范》,采用替代工程法、费用支出法、市场价值法、条件价值评估法等方法,从物质量和价值量2个方面对森林生态系统的环境调节功能、支持功能及文化功能进行评估。结果表明:西山森林公园森林生态系统服务功能总价值为33 018.37万元/a,单位面积森林生态系统服务功能价值为61.12万元/hm~2。以生物多样性保护为代表的功能支持价值为1 080.4万元/a;调节功能价值为2 937.97万元/a;以森林游憩为代表的文化功能价值为2.9×10~8元/a,占总价值的87.8%,是西山森林公园生态效益价值的重要组成部分。     

小黑山自然保护区森林生态系统服务功能及价值评估

以小黑山自然保护区的森林生态系统为研究对象,采用影子工程法、机会成本法、市场价值法等研究方法,对其生态系统服务功能的直接价值和间接价值进行了评估.结果表明,小黑山自然保护区的生态系统服务功能价值达10.52×108元/a,其中直接价值为5 406.89×104元/a,仅占服务功能总价值的5.14%,而间接价值高达99 825.04×104元/a,两者之比为1∶18.46.间接价值中大小顺序依次为:涵养水源水土保持维持生物多样性固碳释氧净化空气科研文化.小黑山自然保护区对维持当地社会经济可持续发展具有举足轻重的作用.     

玉溪市森林生态系统服务功能价值评估

对玉溪市森林生态系统服务功能价值进行估算,结果全市森林生态系统服务功能总价值为348.35亿元,其中,调节功能价值为294.15亿元/a,占森林服务功能总价值的84.44%;以生物多样性为代表反映的支持功能价值为46.33亿元/a,占总价值的13.30%;以森林游憩反映的文化功能价值为0.26亿元/a,占0.07%;提供直接产品价值7.61亿元/a,占2.19%.评估结果表明,玉溪市森林生态系统服务功能价值巨大,但林业产值不高,森林的生态服务功能价值为其直接利用价值的44.73倍.在产品提供价值中,直接采伐利用的价值占产品提供价值的20.06%,仅占整个森林服务功能价值的0.44%.直接采伐利用森林的木材资源仅仅是森林为人类所提供的各种服务功能价值中比重很小的部分.     

苏州森林生态服务功能价值评估

以最新发布的《中国森林生态系统服务功能评估规范》为依据，根据2007年苏州市森林资源规划设计调查资料，对苏州森林生态系统的涵养水源、保育土壤、固碳释氧、营养物质积累、净化空气、物种保育、景观游憩等生态服务功能价值进行初步评估。结果表明，苏州森林生态系统单位面积服务功能价值为69255元/（hm^2·a），总价值为446830万元／a，其中涵养水源价值为167910万元／a，保育土壤价值为59614万元，a，累积营养物质价值为25235万元/a，固碳释氧价值为76023万元/a，净化空气价值为25629万元／a，物种保育价值为86148万元／a，景观游憩价值为6271万元／a。     

冀北山区森林生态系统服务价值评价

以冀北山地的森林生态系统为研究对象,利用《中国森林生态系统服务功能观测与评估规范(LY/T1721-2008)》中的评估方法,定量评价了该区不同植被类型生态系统服务价值。冀北山地森林生态系统服务功能总价值为579.13亿元/a,其中涵养水源价值为294.09亿元/a,固碳释氧价值为142.81亿元/a,物种保育价值为87.37亿元/a,保育土壤价值为27.20亿元/a,营养物质积累价值为25.04亿元/a,净化大气价值为1.95亿元/a,森林游憩价值为0.67亿元/a。其中,核桃楸、椴树和桦树的单位面积服务价值最大。     

云南森林生态系统服务功能价值评估

利用云南省森林资源连续清查第5次复查数据,按照森林生态系统服务功能价值的评估方法,对云南省森林生态系统的服务功能价值进行了估算。云南省森林生态系统服务功能总价值为12 353.81×108元.a-1,其中提供非直接产品的生态产值为12 224.36×108元,占服务功能总价值的98.95%;生态服务功能价值为12 220.33×108元,占总价值的98.92%;产品提供价值为129.44×108元,占1.05%。森林的生态服务功能价值是其直接产品提供价值的94.41倍,表明生态服务功能价值远远高于其直接利用价值。云南省森林总面积占全国森林总面积的10.02%,而森林生态系统生态服务功能价值占全国森林生态系统生态服务功能价值的12.21%。单位面积林分的年生态服务功能价值为6.77×104元.hm-2,高于全国5.52×104元.hm-2的水平。     

景东县森林生态系统服务价值评估

基于联合国千年生态系统评估框架,建立了景东县森林生态系统服务价值评估指标体系,采用市场价值法、替代工程法等,结合森林资源调查数据对云南省景东县森林生态系统服务的物质量和价值量进行了定量评价。结果表明,景东县森林生态系统服务总价值为259.43亿元/a,其中,提供产品服务价值为7.78亿元/a,调节服务价值为154.89亿元/a,支持服务价值为92.19亿元/a,文化服务价值为4.57亿元/a;森林生态系统服务总价值是该县林业总产值和国内生产总值的33.34倍和5.12倍;不同生态服务提供的价值大小顺序为保育土壤固碳释氧涵养水源净化大气环境提供产品森林游憩生物多样性保护。不同森林类型提供的生态服务价值大小顺序为思茅松栎类针阔混交阔叶混交软阔栲类云南松桦木铁杉针叶混交杉木华山松桉树。     

光雾山彩叶林旅游生态系统服务功能价值评估

以光雾山彩叶林区为研究对象,对彩叶林旅游生态系统服务功能进行价值评估。结果表明:研究区森林生态系统服务功能总价值为13.12×10~8元,彩叶旅游生态系统服务功能总价值为0.97×10~8元。生态系统服务功能价值大小关系为:固碳释氧森林游憩涵养水源土壤保持生物多样性林副产品净化大气。研究区的生态系统服务功能价值及游憩价值低于同类型或同区域森林生态系统。     

广西雅长兰科植物自然保护区生态系统生态功能分析及其价值评估

广西雅长兰科植物自然保护区是我国第一个以兰科植物为保护对象的国家级自然保护区。依据《广西雅长兰科植物自然保护区综合科学考察报告》及相关文献资料,结合社会公共数据,研究了雅长兰科植物自然保护区生态系统涵养水源、土壤保持、固碳释氧、维护生物多样性、净化空气等多项生态功能,并利用市场价值法、机会成本法和影子工程法等评估了其生态功能价值。研究结果表明:雅长兰科植物自然保护区生态系统涵养水源能力为6810.96×104t/a,土壤保持总量为149.62×104t/a,生态系统固定CO2为2.30×104tC/a,释放O2为7.46×104t/a,吸收SO2量为0.17×104t/a,滞尘能力为22.76×104t/a,吸收氟化物和氮氧化物能力分别为54.29 t/a、88.31 t/a;上述功能及维护生物多样性能力价值共计12.68×108元/a,单位面积价值为5.75×104元/a,单位森林面积价值为8.62×104元/a。由此可见,该保护区生态系统生态功能价值巨大,保持其生态系统结构和功能的完整性对野生动植物特别是兰科植物赖以生存的生境至关重要,同时对区域生态环境安全及经济社会可持续发展具有重要意义。     

Growth of Phlebiopsis gigantea in wood of seven conifer species

Heterobasidion parviporum and Heterobasidion annosum are widely distributed root‐rot fungi that infect conifers throughout Europe. Infection of conifer stumps by spores of these pathogens can be controlled by treating fresh stumps with a competing non‐pathogenic fungus, Phlebiopsis gigantea. In this study, growth of three Latvian strains of P. gigantea and the biological control agent ‘Rotstop’ strain was evaluated in stem pieces of Norway spruce, Scots pine, lodgepole pine, Douglas‐fir, Weymouth pine, Siberian larch and Sitka spruce. The growth rates of one H. parviporum and one H. annosum isolate were also measured in the same stem pieces. The growth rate of P. gigantea varied greatly in wood of different conifer species. It was higher in the three pine species, lower in Norway spruce and lowest in Sitka spruce and Siberian larch, and in Douglas‐fir, this fungus did not grow. The largest area of wood occupied by P. gigantea was in lodgepole pine. Growth of Latvian isolates of P. gigantea in the wood of Pinus and Picea species was comparable to that of the Rotstop isolate. Consequently, stump treatment with local P. gigantea isolates should be recommended. However, our results suggest that Douglas‐fir stump treatment against Heterobasidion by P. gigantea may be ineffective and other stump treatment methods should be considered.     

Growth of Mixed Birch-Coniferous Stands in Relation to Pure Coniferous Stands at Similar Sites in South-eastern Norway

Mean age, mean and top heights and yield were studied in 20 mixed stands of birch ( Betula pubescens Ehrh. and B. pendula Roth) and Picea abies (L.) Karst. and nine mixed stands of birch and Pinus sylvestris L. in south-eastern Norway. Each mixed stand and the adjacent pure coniferous stand (control) were growing under the same site conditions and had not been commercially thinned. There were no significant differences in mean age at breast height or in top heights between birch and conifers in the mixed stands, while mean height was significantly higher for birch than for spruce. A growth index was calculated based on total volume and age at breast height. For the spruce sites the growth in young mixed stands (birch < 17 m) was superior to that of pure spruce, while the difference was insignificant in older stands. The growth index correlated positively with the ratio between generatively and vegetatively regenerated birch trees, and negatively with the age of the oldest species in the mixture and with site quality. For the pine sites there was no significant difference in the growth index between mixed birch-pine and pure pine stands. A mixture effect of birch on the volume yield of spruce or pine could not be demonstrated.     

Defoliation by the Needle-shortening Pine Gall Midge,Thecodiplosis brachyntera,on Pines in Central Sweden

An outbreak of the needle-shortening pine gall midge, Thecodiplosis brachyntera , occurred on Scots pine, Pinus sylvestris (L.) and lodgepole pine, P. contorta (Dougl.) in central Sweden during 1995-1998. The larval feeding of T. brachyntera kills current-year needles and heavy infestation causes severe defoliation. A pattern of fluctuating defoliation among years and sites was found on both pine species. Defoliation was evenly distributed in the crown of P. sylvestris during years of high as well as low infestation; apical whorls had as much defoliation as basal whorls. In P. contorta , however, there was a tendency for defoliation to be concentrated on branches in the most apical whorls. Growth ring increments on P. sylvestris with high levels of defoliation (71%) did not differ from trees with moderate levels (26%) of defoliation. Shoot lengths were significantly shorter, however, on heavily infested trees the year after defoliation.     

Boron in forest trees and forest ecosystems

This review critically examines the role of boron (B) in forests in view of recent findings on B nutrition and the continuing occurrence of B deficiency. Many perceptions about the role of B in plants and its uptake and mobility have been altered since the last review on B in forest trees in 1990. Now there is evidence for a fundamental role of B in the formation of the pectic structure in primary cell walls in plants, and further roles in membrane function are being explored. In plants, channel-mediated B uptake, active B uptake and B uptake by mycorrhizas have been shown, B transporters have been identified, and B retranslocation has been shown. We explore these findings and their consequences on forest trees and on ecosystems that they dominate. Particular emphasis is placed on B retranslocation and B in mycorrhizal symbiosis, given their importance in trees.     

Development of Pinus sylvestris Main Stems Following Three Different Precommercial Thinning Methods in a Mixed Stand

Reducing competition by point cleaning may be an attractive alternative to conventional precommercial thinning in forestry. In this study, survival and development of main stems of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) following point cleaning were examined in a mixed stand of mainly Scots pine and birch (Betula pendula Roth and Betula pubescens Ehrh.) in northern Sweden. Treatments studied were: no precommercial thinning, conventional precommercial thinning, point cleaning of all secondary stems, and point cleaning of only the secondary stems that were higher than the main stem, within a radius of 0.8 m from the main stem, respectively. A randomised complete block design with three replicates was used. Measurements taken 13 growing seasons after these treatments showed that conventional precommercial thinning was the best treatment for retaining Scots pines as main stems. However, conventional precommercial thinning resulted in the poorest timber quality of the remaining Scots pines in terms of stem taper, thickest branch diameter and relative live crown height. In conclusion, point cleaning has to be followed by a complementary cleaning operation if the objective is to retain Scots pines as main stems in such mixed stands.     

Survival and Growth of Picea abies Regeneration after Shelterwood Removal with Single- and Double-grip Harvester Systems

Three stands in Sweden were followed for 7 yrs to study the survival and growth of Norway spruce [Picea abies (L.) Karst.] regeneration after shelterwood removal with single- and double-grip harvester systems. The height of all seedlings within circular plots was recorded before and after final cutting. The tallest seedling and one randomly selected seedling on each circular plot were permanently marked and their annual height growth was measured each year during the period 1993-1999. No significant differences between single- and double-grip harvester systems were found with respect to their effects on regeneration density, survival or annual height growth. The annual height growth of the individual seedlings after shelterwood removal was significantly correlated with seedling height before shelterwood removal. Significant differences were found in annual height growth between seedlings with high and low vitality. Logging damage did not affect the annual height growth. Several practical conclusions were drawn. First, the choice of harvester system does not affect seedling height growth or survival after shelterwood removal. Secondly, the removal of a 200 m³ shelterwood with 200 stems ha^-1 does not seem to constitute a serious problem for seedling survival and growth. Finally, estimated vitality and seedling height both seem to be fairly good predictors of postrelease survival and growth.     

Tree planting for dryland salinity control in Australia

Dryland salinity is emerging as a major form of land and water degradation in southern Australia, particularly in Western Australia, South Australia and Victoria, and to a lesser extent in New South Wales, Tasmania and Queensland.Tree planting, in combination with other vegetation treatments, is regarded as a leading solution to dryland salinity. Research has now shown that planting trees can significantly lower groundwater tables, and thereby reverse the causal process of salinisation. Substantial progress has been made towards answering the basic questions of which species to grow, how to plant, where to plant, at what density and configuration to plant, and how much area to plant. The economic potential for commercial tree planting has given impetus to partial reforestation in higher rainfall (> 600 mm yr^–1) areas. Even so, serious constraints are apparent, relating primarily to cost, uncertainty and attitude. The future should bring increasing community input and control, technical refinement and gradual adoption, provided all aspects of the issue are well researched, relevant information is well communicated and programmes are well administered. Some specific requirements for future research are identified in this review.     

Effect of Cuttings on the Scenic Beauty of a Tree Stand

The opinions of 207 respondents on the visual effects of seven different cutting types were asked using a nine-point verbal scale ranging from ''worsens very much'' to ''improves very much''. Other estimates were obtained by letting the same respondents evaluate photographs of stands which had been treated with different cuttings. The direct questions gave results quite similar to the evaluations of photographs for all but young respondents, indicating that most respondents were able to imagine the effect of the treatment correctly. The results based on the evaluation of photographs indicated that the effect of regenerative cuttings is negative while the impact of thinnings is positive. After a few years of cutting the stand is already regarded as clearly more pleasant than immediately after the cutting. Natural regeneration with seed trees seems to be a way to avoid the very negative immediate impact of clear-felling, especially in the case of Scots pine. Women, young, urban people and those who do not own forest or have work related to forests tended to experience thinnings less positively and saw regenerative cuttings as more harmful than the other test groups did.     

Pinus contorta growth in northern Sweden as affected by soil scarification

The aim of this study was to quantify the effects of different soil scarification methods on tree growth. Soil scarification influenced stem volume and stem biomass yield of lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta Dougl. var. latifolia Engelm.) in a 17-year-old field trial in boreal Sweden. Soil scarification (disc trenching, mounding and ploughing) resulted in an average stem volume yield of 3.1 and 34.2 m³ ha^–1 on the poor and intermediate sites, respectively, while corresponding values for no soil scarification were 0.9 and 16.7 m³ ha^–1. In comparison to no scarification, ploughing increased volume yields by 500% on the poor site and by 200% on the intermediate sites. The ranking according to stem volume yield was ploughing > disc trenching = mounding no soil scarification. Averaged over the two sites, the mean annual increment of stem biomass was 219% and 145% higher (in d.w., 0.26 kg and 0.34 kg per sample tree) after ploughing compared with no soil scarification, for the average and dominant sample trees, respectively. Although not significant, the increased growth rate after soil scarification decreased the average stem basic wood density of the sample trees with 1.6% and 5.3%, at the poor and intermediate sites, respectively. In conclusion, soil scarification significantly increased the 17-year stem volume yield compared with no scarification. The results also indicate that the difference in stem biomass yield between ploughing and the other methods, especially no soil scarification, will increase even more in the near future.