黄土高原丘陵沟壑区林木生长状况调查

通过对黄土高原丘陵沟壑区典型代表区的安塞县高桥乡3个小流域不同立地条件林木的生长情况进行调查分析，提出了当地适宜在沟谷、阴坡地进行造林，其它立地条件适宜栽植灌草植被，探讨了不同立地条件植被的配置原则。     

黄土高原和六盘山区森林面积增加对产水量的影响

[目的]定量评价黄土高原地区造林对流域产水量的影响,指导林水协调的林业发展和森林管理。[方法]综合分析多年在黄土高原、泾河流域、六盘山区开展的森林产流影响的多尺度研究结果。[结果]在黄土高原区域尺度,林地平均年径流(16 mm)比非林地(39 mm)减少59%;在典型流域尺度(泾河干流上游流域),森林年均产水量(76 mm)比自然草地减少51%,其中,半湿润土石山区的森林年均产水量(88.8 mm)比自然草地减少58%;在典型小流域尺度(半湿润的香水河小流域),完全覆盖森林后的年均产流比无森林覆盖情景减少59%。森林增加导致的年产流减幅在干旱地区和干旱年份会更大,并可能超过100%,如年降水量低于450 mm的黄土流域、半干旱的泾河上游黄土区的林地及半干旱的叠叠沟小流域的坡面乔木林分样地,其年产水量常为零或负值,即需消耗土壤水分和坡上汇入径流等维持生存。低度间伐不能显著减少森林蒸散耗水。[结论]在黄土高原研究的小流域、流域和区域空间尺度内,造林减少年产流量的平均幅度都在50%~60%以上,且随干旱程度的增加可达到100%,并因消耗降水外的其他水源而出现负产流。需依据水分承载力合理选择待恢复植被类型和确定森林覆盖率,这是保障区域供水安全和实现林水协调管理的基本途径。     

Effects of forest vegetation on runoff and sediment transport of watershed in Loess area, west China

This paper aims to study the effects of vegetation on runoff and sediment transport at the watershed scale, and to provide a theoretical basis for afforestation in the Loess area, in the nested Caijiachuan watershed, Jixian County, Shanxi Province of west China. Forest watersheds and farmland watersheds with similar terrain features were selected through cluster analysis to study their runoff and sediment transport characteristics. Results showed that compared with farmland watersheds, runoff generation time in forest watersheds was delayed remarkably, and peak flow was reduced greatly, which indicates that vegetation played an important role in holding and absorbing rainfall. Besides, with the increase of forest coverage, the runoff amount, runoff depth and runoff coefficient decreased during the rainy seasons. The runoff depth and runoff coefficient of farmland watersheds in the rainy season were 5–20-fold as much as that of forest watersheds, and runoff and sediment yield of watersheds with low forest coverage were 2.7–2.9-fold and 3–6-fold as great as those with high coverage during rainstorms, and low forest coverage had larger variation in sediment hydrograph. For the complexity and scale dependence of the influence of forest vegetation on runoff, forest hydrological functions based on regional scale or watershed scale were worthy of further studies. __________ Translated from Science of Soil and Water Conservation, 2006, 4(3): 48–53 [译自: 中国水土保持科学]     

APEX model simulation of runoff and sediment losses for grazed pasture watersheds with agroforestry buffers

Buffers have been found to reduce non-point source pollution (NPSP) from watersheds. Hydrologic simulation models assist in predicting the effects of buffers on runoff and sediment losses from small watersheds. The objective of this study was to calibrate, validate and simulate runoff and sediment losses and compare buffer effects on NPSP losses relative to control watersheds (no buffer) for seven years. The experimental design consists of four watersheds under pasture management which were monitored from 2002 through 2008; two with agroforestry buffers (AgB 100 and AgB 300) and two control watersheds (CW 400 and CW 600). Pasture areas included red clover (Trifolium pretense L.) and lespedeza (Kummerowia stipulacea Maxim.) planted into fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) while the agroforestry buffer area included Eastern cottonwood trees (Populus deltoids Bortr. ex Marsh.) planted into fescue. The APEX model was calibrated from 2002 to 2005 and was validated from 2006 to 2008. The r ² and NSE values for the calibration and validation periods of the runoff varied from 0.52 to 0.78 and 0.50 to 0.74, respectively. The model did not predict sediment loss very well probably due to insufficient number of measured events and low measured sediment loss. The measured runoff was 57% higher for CW watersheds compared to AgB watersheds. The measured sediment loss was 95% higher for CW watersheds compared to AgB watersheds. After calibrating and validating the model, it was run for long-term scenario analyses for 10 years from 1999 to 2008. Simulated buffer width had a significant influence on runoff. Simulated runoff decreased by 24% when the buffer width was doubled compared to losses associated with the measured buffer width. Simulated runoff from the CW watersheds was 11% higher with double stocking density (relative to measured density) compared to AgB watersheds with double stocking density. With half stocking density (relative to measured density), the AgB watershed had 18% lower runoff compared to CW. Results from this study imply that establishment of agroforestry buffers on grazed pasture watersheds reduce runoff and sediment losses compared to control watersheds without buffers.     

Soil water response to precipitation in different microtopographies on the semi-arid Loess Plateau,China

Soil water is an important factor restricting afforestation on the semi-arid Loess Plateau.The microtopography of the loess slope has changed the distribution pattern of soil water on the slope.To improve water utilization efficiency and optimize afforestation configuration patterns,the relationship between soil water and precipitation at micro-topographic scale must be studied.We used time series analysis to study the temporal variation of soil water and its response to precipitation in four kinds of micro-topographies and undisturbed slope on loess slopes.Micro-topographies significantly influenced soil water distribution and dynamics on the slopes.Soil water stored in the platform,sinkhole,and ephemeral gully influenced subsequent soil water for 4 weeks,whereas soil water stored in the scarp and undisturbed slope could influence soil water for 2 weeks.It took 12 weeks,10 weeks,18 weeks,6 weeks,and 12 weeks for precipitation to reach the deeper soil layer in the platform,sinkhole,scarp,ephemeral gully,and undisturbed slope,respectively.These soil water characteristics in different micro-topographies are vital factors that should be taken into consideration when undertaking afforestation on the Loess Plateau.     

Agroforestry and grass buffer effects on water quality in grazed pastures

Conservation practices including agroforestry and grass buffers are believed to reduce nonpoint source pollution (NPSP) from pastured watersheds. Agroforestry, a land management practice that intersperses agricultural crops with trees, has recently received increased attention in the temperate zone due to its environmental and economic benefits. However, studies are limited that have examined buffer effects on the quality of water from grazed pastures. Six treatment areas, two with agroforestry buffers, two with grass buffers, and two control treatments were used to test the hypothesis that agroforestry and grass buffers can be used to effectively reduce NPSP from pastured watersheds. Vegetation in grass buffer and pasture areas includes red clover (Trifolium pretense L.) and lespedeza (Kummerowia stipulacea Maxim.) planted into fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.). Eastern cottonwood trees (Populus deltoides Bortr. ex Marsh.) were planted into fescue in agroforestry buffers. Soils at the site are mostly Menfro silt loam (fine-silty, mixed, superactive, mesic Typic Hapludalfs). Treatments were instrumented with two-foot H flumes, water samplers, and flow measuring devices in 2001. Composite water samples were analyzed for sediment and total nitrogen after each runoff event to compare treatment differences. Treatments with agroforestry and grass buffers had significantly lower runoff volumes as compared to the control. The loss of sediment and total nitrogen were smaller for the buffered treatments. The results of this study suggest that establishment of agroforestry and grass buffers help reduce NPSP pollution from pastured watersheds. It is anticipated as trees grow and roots occupy more soil volume, the reduction in N in runoff will increase on the agroforestry watershed.     

皇甫川流域2000—2015年植被NDVI时空变化特征

【目的】分析黄土高原砒砂岩区植被覆盖的时空动态变化特征,探讨土地利用类型对归一化植被指数(NDVI)的影响及植被盖度与水热因子的空间和时滞关系,为黄土高原砒砂岩区退化植被恢复重建和黄河粗泥沙的综合治理提供思路,改善当地生存条件和生态环境。【方法】在皇甫川流域,利用2000—2015年MODIS13Q1共192期产品,以ENVI为技术平台,计算NDVI,采用一元线性回归分析法和Spearman相关分析法分析其在不同时间尺度上的动态变化和不同空间尺度上的分布格局,基于地理空间系统分析其在不同土地利用方式下(分辨率30m)的时空特性,并运用Spearman相关分析法详细分析NDVI和水热因子间的响应关系。【结果】2000—2015年,皇甫川流域NDVI平均值为0.429~0.630,呈线性增加趋势,增长速率为0.0042·a^-1,生长季与非生长季差别显著,5月出现最大值,气温和降水量亦呈增加趋势,增长速率为0.0348℃·a^-1和6.27mm·a^-1;空间上,纳林川子流域16年来NDVI为0.1~0.3,十里长川子流域为0.25~0.4,均呈“沟道高-坡面低”的空间格局;不同土地利用类型下NDVI为0.2~0.25,表现为林地>耕地>草地>未利用地,16年的增长速率表现为草地>未利用地>林地>耕地;纳林川支流沟道附近NDVI呈下降趋势,变化率为-0.09~0,而远离沟道的坡面地区呈上升趋势,变化率为0~0.12;十里长川支流沟道附近NDVI变化率为0~0.4,而沟道周围地区变化率为0.04~0.12;整个流域内NDVI的增长趋势在空间上呈坡面极显著、沟道附近显著、沟道不显著的空间格局;16年间生长季NDVI与气温无明显相关性,与降水的相关系数为-0.41~0.87,相比沟道附近植被而言,坡面上的植被更易受降水量影响;植被生长对降水的响应存在1年(P=0.036<0.05)和1个月(P=0.001<0.01)的滞后期,对气温存在2个月(P=0.002<0.01)的滞后期。【结论】时间上,皇甫川流域NDVI在不断波动中呈显著上升趋势,生长季与非生长季均值变化表现出明显不同。空间上,皇甫川流域NDVI在沟道均值高,但增长率低,甚至出现退化现象,在坡面均值低,但呈极显著增长。林地和草地增加最多,说明近年来退耕还林工程效果显著。NDVI与降水相关性较高并与气温和降水都存在一定滞后现象。     

Is MUSLE apt to small steeply reforested watershed?

The reforested headwater watersheds in Japan are very important from the points of view of commercial and environmental aspects. At the present time, much and varied research is running to assess and understand the hydrologic behavior of these watersheds. The present study was conducted to evaluate the applicability of the deterministic model MUSLE in the Mie small steeply reforested watershed. The model was tested and calibrated using accurate continuous suspended sediment data collected during eight storm events in 2004. Results of the original model simulations for storm-wise sediment yield did not match the observed data, while the revised version of the model could imitate the observed values well. The results of the study approved the efficient application of the revised MUSLE in estimating storm-wise sediment yield in the study area with a high level of agreement of beyond 88%, an acceptable estimation error of some 14% and non-significant difference in mean values.     

Effects of changes in land use and land cover on sediment discharge of runoff in a typical watershed in the hill and gully loess region of northwest China

Land use plays a much more important role than other factors, such as climate, soil properties, topographic features, vegetation coverage, human activities and others, in affecting soil erosion and sediment discharge. In order to understand the effects of changes in land use on sediment discharge and to provide a theoretical basis for land use planning, management and ecological restoration, we used the controlled Qiaozidong watershed and the uncontrolled Qiaozixi watershed in the third sub-region of the Loess Plateau as examples and analyzed the effects of land use and land cover on the discharge of sediments. The results show that the impact of land use and land cover on the annual amount of sediment discharge is significant. Compared with the uncontrolled watershed during similar periods, the amount of sediment discharged from the controlled watershed was reduced by 44%, 75% and 86%, respectively, in wet, normal and dry years. In the controlled watershed, compared with the period from 1986 to 1994, the amount of sediments discharged was less during the period from 1995 to 2004. The impact of land use and land cover on sediment discharge demonstrated characteristics of seasonal fluctuation. The effects of sediment reduction in the controlled watershed were greater than those in the uncontrolled watershed in May and September. In the controlled watershed, the reduction effect coincided with the distribution of rainfall. The amount of discharged flood sediments is closely correlated with rainfall, rainfall intensity in a 60 min period and the volume of flood. The rainstorm-runoff process and the rainstorm-sediment discharge process demonstrate that land cover has a strong regulatory and control function in the flood process and sediment discharge in rainstorms. For the controlled watershed, given the same precipitation frequency distribution, the average amount of sediment discharged during the land use period from 1995 to 2004 was less than that during the earlier land use period from 1986 to 1994 under every recurrent period. __________ Translated from Journal of Beijing Forestry University, 2007, 29(6): 115–122 [译自: 北京林业大学学报]     

Subsurface discharge and suspended sediment yield interactions in a valley head of a small forested watershed

Sediment hield caused by hydraulic agents is believed to be one of the most important geomorphic processes in headwaters. Observations of shallow groundwater levels and suspended sediment yield were used to develop relationships between subsurface discharge and sediment movement in a valley head of a small forested watershed in Hokkaido, northern Japan. Drainage capacity of the soil was closely correlated with subsurface soil movement in the valley head. An increase in subsurface discharge associated with an increase in the drainage capacity of the soil depended heavily on the discharge of fine-grained particles originating from the soil. Clogging created by the fine-grained particles in the soil caused a decrease in subsurface discharge associated with the decline in the drainage capacity. In addition, neither the drainage capacity of the soil nor subsurface discharge changed because of the sediment unavailability within the subsurface flow system. Accordingly, as shown by the changes in the drainage capacity of the sedimentary soil, subsurface discharge and suspended sediment yield from the valley head showed strong interactions.     

Response of vegetation, shade and stream temperature to debris torrents in two western Oregon watersheds

This study examines watershed patterns of riparian vegetation, shade, and stream temperature eight years after extreme storm events triggered numerous debris torrents throughout the Pacific Northwest. We examined twelve impacted streams in two western Oregon watersheds: the Calapooia River in the western Cascades and the Williams River in the Coast Range. Red alder (Alnus rubra) and willow (Salix spp.) were the dominant species on debris torrented areas in both watersheds. Post-disturbance vegetation recovery was significant in both watersheds, impacting shade and stream temperatures. However, red alder density, basal area, and height were significantly greater along streams in the Williams River watershed than along streams in the Calapooia River watershed. Willow density, basal area and height were similar between the watersheds. Stream shading levels mirrored red alder growth, with greater average shading in the Williams River watershed. The greater shade translated into lower summer maximum stream temperatures and maximum diurnal stream temperature fluctuations in the Williams River as compared to the Calapooia River watershed. Minimum stream temperatures were not different between the two watersheds. The rapid re-growth of red alder along the Williams River watershed ultimately lead to a rapid decline in maximum summer stream temperatures for that watershed compared to the Calapooia River watershed. The location where the disturbance occurred had an important role in determining the rate and pathway of stream recovery.     

Response of selected water chemical quality parameters to slight thinning in a mature oak–beech forest ecosystem under sub-humid climate conditions

The objective of this study was to determine the effect of 18% thinning on streamflow nutrient flux from a mature oak–beech forest ecosystem by paired watershed approach. Two experimental watersheds including control (W-I) and treatment (W-IV) watersheds were used in the study. The experimental watersheds were monitored about 6 years from 2006 to 2011 for the calibration period and 4 years from 2012 to 2015 for the treatment period. The forest in the treatment watershed was thinned between October and December in 2011, and the forest in the control watershed was left untreated. Water grab samples were collected from the streams in the watersheds on weekly basis during both the calibration and treatment periods and analyzed for calcium (Ca²⁺), magnesium (Mg²⁺), Kjeldahl nitrogen (KN), sodium (Na⁺), potassium (K⁺), iron (Fe³⁺), aluminum (Al³⁺), ammonium nitrogen (NH₄ ⁺-N), and sulfate (SO₄ ²⁻). The simple linear regression equations were developed between mean monthly nutrient fluxes of two watersheds in the calibration period with significantly high correlation coefficients, and they were used to estimate nutrient fluxes from the treatment watershed during the treatment period as if thinning had not been applied. The changes in the monthly nutrient fluxes were estimated as the differences between measured and values calculated with the linear regression equations. Results showed that removal of 18% standing timber volume did not significantly change nutrient exports except for KN and Na⁺ from the treatment watershed.

     

Calcium addition at the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest increases sugar storage, antioxidant activity and cold tolerance in native red spruce (Picea rubens)

In fall (November 2005) and winter (February 2006), we collected current-year foliage of native red spruce (Picea rubens Sarg.) growing in a reference watershed and in a watershed treated in 1999 with wollastonite (CaSiO(3), a slow-release calcium source) to simulate preindustrial soil calcium concentrations (Ca-addition watershed) at the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest (Thornton, NH). We analyzed nutrition, soluble sugar concentrations, ascorbate peroxidase (APX) activity and cold tolerance, to evaluate the basis of recent (2003) differences between watersheds in red spruce foliar winter injury. Foliar Ca and total sugar concentrations were significantly higher in trees in the Ca-addition watershed than in trees in the reference watershed during both fall (P=0.037 and 0.035, respectively) and winter (P=0.055 and 0.036, respectively). The Ca-addition treatment significantly increased foliar fructose and glucose concentrations in November (P=0.013 and 0.007, respectively) and foliar sucrose concentrations in winter (P=0.040). Foliar APX activity was similar in trees in both watersheds during fall (P=0.28), but higher in trees in the Ca-addition watershed during winter (P=0.063). Cold tolerance of foliage was significantly greater in trees in the Ca-addition watershed than in trees in the reference watershed (P<0.001). Our results suggest that low foliar sugar concentrations and APX activity, and reduced cold tolerance in trees in the reference watershed contributed to their high vulnerability to winter injury in 2003. Because the reference watershed reflects forest conditions in the region, the consequences of impaired physiological function caused by soil Ca depletion may have widespread implications for forest health.     

森林水文研究方法

森林水文研究方法，是以研究大气降水在森林流域中的水分循环为核心，提出系统的观测研究方法。包括：森林小流域的选择与布设，水量平衡场修建与观测，降水，下渗与渗透，蒸散发，土壤水分，森林流域径流，流域水文模型的模拟，水质测定等。本方法参考当代国内外现行的先进和实用的方法撰写而成，可供水文站，森林生态定位站应用和参考。     

陕北黄土区坡面微地形对乔木空间分布的影响

[目的]传统造林树木种植点设计忽略了黄土坡面微地形对其生长的影响,研究切沟、塌陷地、缓台等微地形与现有林分乔木空间分布的耦合关系,可为近自然造林及乔灌混交水土保持林结构配置提供参考。[方法]以陕西省吴起县三道川流域内原状坡面及微地形的植被调查数据为基础,采用Arcgis9.3软件的空间分析工具和格局强度指标研究坡面微地形对乔木空间分布的影响。[结果]坡面微地形面积占样地面积的21.03%,微地形上乔木株数占样地总数的51.77%,乔木主要分布在坡面微地形上。乔木在切沟和缓台主要呈聚集分布,在塌陷和陡坎主要呈随机分布。乔木在不同坡面微地形分布差异极显著,榆树、小叶杨、山杏主要聚集分布在切沟,河北杨主要聚集分布在切沟和缓台,刺槐主要聚集分布在缓台。[结论]坡面各类微地形因其土壤水分等微生境差异而对乔木空间分布影响显著,在近自然植被重建中需根据坡面各类微地形生境及空间分布规律长期保持配置树木种植点,切沟以河北杨、小叶杨、榆树等树种为主,缓台以河北杨、刺槐搭配为宜,塌陷以河北杨、小叶杨为宜。     

渭北旱塬沟壑区不同立地条件刺槐林生长分析

渭北高原沟壑区主要立地类型土壤水分变化及对刺槐生长影响分析结果表明：土壤水分与刺槐生长之间关系密切,说明水分是影响刺槐生长的主要因素,地形和土壤则是划分渭北旱塬立地类型的主要因子。不同立地类型间刺槐高、地径生长量由大到小的序列为：沟底塌积土〉塬面黄土〉梁顶黄土〉沟底石砾土〉阳坡下部黄土〉阳坡上部黄土〉梁坡上部姜石粗骨土〉冲风口黄土〉梁顶姜石粗骨土〉沟坡中下部阳向黄土〉红胶土。     

尖山河流域不同植被类型坡面产流产沙量研究

对云南省玉溪市小尖山流域径流小区进行定位观测试验,对珠江石灰岩溶地区的不同植被类型坡面产流产沙量进行分析,结果表明：①该小流域降雨量年内分配不均,雨季（6—9月）占全年降雨量的83．2％,当降雨量大于5mm或10min雨强大于9mm／h时都会使该流域坡耕地发生产流．②灌草丛和次生林比坡耕地减少产流54．29％和92．06％,比人工林减少产流52．78％和87．13％．4个径流小区的产流大小顺序为：坡耕地〉人工林〉退耕地-灌草丛〉次生林．③土壤侵蚀量随着径流量的增加而增加,灌草丛和天然次生林分别比坡耕地减少土壤侵蚀量95．96％和99．02％,比人工林减少土壤侵蚀量64．60％和91．40％,其大小顺序与产流量一致．坡耕地、人工林、灌草丛的侵蚀量主要是由几次单次侵蚀贡献的,而次生林则是平均贡献．因此次生林防止水土流失的效果最好,在建立人工林时,应该考虑合适的复层结构,乔灌结合才能达到水土保持的最佳效果．     

Concentrated flow paths in riparian buffer zones of southern Illinois

Riparian buffers in agricultural landscapes should be designed to trap pollutants in overland flow by slowing, filtering, and infiltrating surface runoff entering the buffer via sheet flow. However, observational evidence suggests that concentrated flow is prevalent from agricultural fields. Over time sediment can accumulate in riparian buffers forming berms that restrict sheet flow; these berms ultimately back up surface runoff, resulting in an eventual breakthrough that concentrates overland flow. This study examines the occurrence of concentrated flow paths (CFPs) in riparian buffers at both the field and watershed scale. At the field scale, intensive topographic surveys were conducted at ten field sites in southern Illinois. To assess the prevalence of CFPs at the watershed scale, three watersheds in southern Illinois were selected for walking stream surveys along randomly selected 1,000 m reaches. CFPs were identified in all topographic surveys and all walking stream surveys. Among field sites, concentrated flow accounted for 82.5–100% of the drainage leaving the agricultural fields. Sediment berm accumulation was identified at all field sites and was positively correlated with CFP size. At the watershed scale, CFPs were more abundant in agricultural areas compared to forested land. Results from this study indicate that concentrated flow was prevalent across all study sites at both the field and watershed scale. Thus, surface water quality may suffer in areas with poorly functioning buffers, and managers must consider the occurrence of CFPs when designing and maintaining riparian buffers to protect stream water quality.     

The Application of GIS in Small Watershed Classification in Loess Plateau

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