Evaluating agroforestry interventions in extension projects

Because of the relative dearth of scientific information in agroforestry, monitoring and evaluation of agroforestry technologies in development projects plays an important role in the development and improvement of technical extension recommendations. To identify appropriate methodologies, ICRAF conducted in 1988–89 a review of agroforestry technology monitoring and evaluation in 166 projects worldwide, of which 108 responded. Almost 80% of these were involved in technology evaluation. Many extension projects were conducting research to test technologies on-farm or on research plots. Technology evaluation by projects focused on the biological of trees, often with inadequate consideration of the technology context. Few projects seemed to use farmer assessment in evaluation. Recommendations are made for an effective evaluation process and selection of appropriate methods and variables to be assessed by projects. Methods should be selected according to the availability of resources and should favour collaborative or collegial interaction between farmers and project staff.     

Technology impact evaluation in agroforestry projects

To identify appropriate methods for evaluating the impact of new agroforestry technologies, ICRAF in 1988–89 contacted 166 projects worldwide about their activities in agroforestry technology monitoring and evaluation. Of the 108 which responded, 45% were involved in some type of impact evaluation. This review revealed common difficulties in selecting impact indicators and methods of evaluation. Emphasis to date has been on evaluating numbers of trees planted and area under agroforestry, rather than socioeconomic impacts. Defining agroforestry adoption and distinguishing intermediate and final impacts were problematic. Impact studies were often difficult to interpret or compare, limiting their value for the rest of the agroforestry community. An analytical framework for planning impact evaluation in agroforestry projects is proposed, based on lessons learned from the review. Selection of indicators should depend upon whether project objectives relate to changes in: number and type of trees grown, land use, farmer knowledge and attitudes, availability of agroforestry products and services, and/or socioeconomic welfare. Data collection tools may include sequential photography or mapping, informal or formal farmer surveys, informal or formal field surveys, farmer meetings and workshops, trend analysis of project records, and case studies of households or communities, depending upon the audience for project evaluation and project resources.     

Participatory technology development in agroforestry: methods from a pilot project in Zimbabwe

An on-farm agroforestry pilot project was initiated by the Zimbabwe Forestry Commission in 1988. The main objective of the project is to investigate a range of options to solve problems of woodland depletion faced by small-scale farmers. This paper describes the first two years of on-farm experimentation. The first season's trials are described, and the rationale for moving towards an approach of greater farmer participation in the research process is given. Steps taken to promote experimental tree planting on farms are described, and methods used are illustrated by examples from the project. Critical awareness-raising techniques, steamming from Freirian philosophy, have been central to the methods. The need for a partnership between formal and informal farmer-based research is discussed, as is a model for agroforestry research and development. The latter is proposed in a way that formal research develops the components of agroforestry practices, whilst farmers are encouraged to experiment with a combination of these components in order to develop practices appropriate to local conditions.     

Agroforestry experimentation: Separating the wood from the trees?

ICRAF has evolved and evaluated experimental approaches to agroforestry problems which will help resercchers reach practical conclusions most cost-effectively in the shortest possible time, and with only limited resources. This has meant looking into the experimental phases needed, developing the conceptual background to research problems which involve the complex spatial/temporal features of agroforestry systems, suggesting and initiating simplified field experimental designs and/or assessment methodologies, and establishing source and reference design materials about agroforestry research for distribution.These four sets of activities are outlined and briefly discussed in relation to some of the key research issues which have emerged.Suitable methods for many areas of experimental agroforestry are rapidly being defined, although some of the more complex issues (e.g. multistrata systems, on-farm research with multipurpose trees and tree/crop mixtures) still need a focused attempt to develop appropriate research methodologies.Head, Research Development Division, ICRAF     

Smallholder perceptions of agroforestry projects in Panama

The potential effects of agroforestry systems on conservation and development have been well documented. Panama has seen a substantial rise in the number of projects with an agroforestry component in the 1990s. There has been insufficient research on the actual impacts of these projects on smallholders and of farmers' attitudes towards these systems. This study explores the perceived socioeconomic and environmental impacts of five agroforestry projects in Panama. A total of 68 smallholders were administered semi-structured interviews. In addition, 13 agroforestry experts from NGOs, government departments and research institutes were interviewed, and their responses were compared with those of the smallholders. While the projects led to an increase in the standard of living by providing wood products and fruit for domestic consumption, farm income levels generally remained unchanged. This was due primarily to limited market development, the lack of marketing organizations and poor access roads. In terms of environmental impacts, the farmers' responses suggested a slight decline in slash-and-burn agriculture, and an increase in tree planting activities. Some environmental benefits were observed by farmers, including reduced soil erosion, increased soil fertility, and improved quality and quantity of water sources. Nevertheless, slash-and-burn agriculture was still the norm for the majority of farmers. Most farmers continued to harvest wood from primary and secondary growth to meet their domestic wood requirements, rather than relying on trees planted in agroforestry projects. The main obstacles preventing increased agroforestry adoption included insufficient agroforestry extension, inappropriate project design or management (such as top-down management approaches, and the use of food incentives), smallholders' economic constraints, and larger policy issues. Recommendations are proposed to improve project design and management, and to address the economic and policy constraints. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Identifying important biophysical and social determinants of on-farm tree growing in subsistence-based traditional agroforestry systems

Many expert-designed agroforestry projects enunciated in 1970s around the world, particularly in the developing countries, had uneven success due to inadequate adoption or abandonment after adoption. There are many empirical studies on factors affecting on-farm tree cultivation mainly where expert-designed agroforestry programmes were introduced but lacking in case of traditional agroforestry. Moreover, the concern to identify key factors influencing on-farm tree growing is gaining importance. The present study identifies key factors in on-farm tree growing based on investigation of traditional agroforestry using logistic regression approach. The study is based on household survey of 401 households located in Indian Western Himalaya. The factors affecting on-farm tree growing were grouped into: biophysical (included land use and infrastructural aspects) and social. Models predicting on-farm tree growing for each category were developed and key factors affecting on-farm tree growing in the respective category were identified. A composite model was also developed by combining biophysical and social factors. In the present study, farm size, agroclimatic zone, soil fertility, mobility and importance of tree for future generations respectively were the key factors which influenced tree growing. In contrast to many previous studies which considered either biophysical or social factors, the composite model in the present study reveals that both biophysical and social factors are simultaneously important in motivating the farmers to grow trees on their farms in traditional agroforestry. Moreover, the present study open vistas for using farmers’ experience and knowledge of adoption of agroforestry to stimulate on-farm tree growing. The wider implication of the study is that biophysical as well as social variables should be considered together in designing suitable agroforestry systems in various parts of the world.     

中国复合农林业发展机遇与研究展望

通过概述复合农林业基本内涵、中国林业可持续发展战略及六大林业工程建设与复合农林业的关系.说明复合农林业发展机遇.并结合复合农林业及其相关学科的发展趋势,从研究尺度、研究手段、研究方式、研究地域和热点研究内容等方面,提出我国未来复合农林业研究展望.     

Analysis and evaluation of agroforestry as an alternative environmental design in the Philippines

Tabora, Panfilo C. Analysis and evaluation of agroforestry as an alternative environmental design in the Philippines.Agroforestry as a land-use concept and an environmental design was analyzed and evaluated from the Philippines setting. A historical perspective of agroforestry was presented and the study explores the direction that agroforestry has taken in recent years as a socio-economic tool, a conservation strategy and a political expediency.The concepts of agroforestry were analyzed and used as the bases for evaluation. Five general socially-oriented concepts were examined: social relevance (appropriateness); profitability; balance (equilibrium); versatility and creativity; and longevity and reliability. These were related to five agroecosystem principles: ecological integrity; productivity; stability; flexibility and resiliency; and sustainability and conservation. All these were interrelated to many attributes under a unified Agroecosystem Analysis Framework.Seven current programs in the Philippines which promote agroforestry were also examined and evaluated based on the Agroecosystem Analysis Framework. A closer look at the impacts of the programs was done and ratings were given for each program. The Multiple Cropping Program and the Integrated Social Forestry Program came out with the most positive results.For a closer focus, a site was selected and five cases from the site were evaluated based on a reconstruction of the events and experience in the area over 14 years. The Mixed-Crops Agroforestry (representing the ideal agroforestry) came out with a rating equivalent to the Coconut and Abaca-based Agroforestry. The Industrial Tree Plantation came out with the lowest rating.The study concludes that agroforestry has a role as an environmental design, but that its usefulness has limitations due to some physical constraints and social and economic values that have to be overcome. Recommendations are provided for policy-making for agroforestry.Portion of a study submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the State University of New York College of Environmental Science & Forestry, May, 1986.Presently Leader of the Diversification Program of the Honduran Foundation for Agricultural Research.     

Measuring crop yields in on-farm agroforestry studies

The paper describes the agronomic and statistical principles that form the basis for measuring crop yields in on-farm agroforestry studies. Agroforestry systems differ from agricultural systems because of the presence of tree/crop interfaces and the need for large plots, large borders and long-term monitoring. These differences accentuate the variability of crop performance on farms. Crop yield estimation per unit area in any agroforestry system involves essentially i) stratification of the plot into different, clearly distinguishable crop zones such as those under and free from the influence of trees, those on sloping and flat areas, and those on areas affected by pests, ii) drawing representative samples from each stratum, and iii) weighting the sample yields with weights proportional to the stratum area. The tree/crop interface areas may require further stratification and determination of yields of individual crop rows at different distances away from trees based on the nature and extent of tree/crop competition. The precision of yield estimation depends on how well one is able to define the strata as well as the variance of crop yields in space and time in each stratum. Studies that provide this information are urgently needed for developing practical recommendations for crop-yield measurements on farms.     

People,trees and projects: a review of CARE's activities in West Africa

CARE, in collaboration with a range of government agencies, has been active for over 15 years in agriculture, agroforestry and natural resource management projects in West Africa. Many of these projects evolved from emergency food distribution activities during the drought years of the 1970s and 80s. A number of valuable lessons are now emerging, particularly in relation to agricultural and agroforestry activities in the Sahelo-Sudanian and Sahelian zones. In the context of CARE's orientation and capabilities as a non-governmental development agency, these lessons are used to construct a framework for prioritizing future agriculture and natural resource management activities in the region.     

Role of social aspects in extent of on-farm tree growing in subsistence agroforestry systems of Western Himalaya

Many so-called society-oriented agroforestry programs, mainly in developing countries, fail because they do not take account of the social structure in their design. This study provides empirical evidence of the impact of social structure on the extent of on-farm tree growing. The study has been carried out in Mandi district of Himachal Pradesh, in Indian Western Himalaya. Analysis of survey data reveals significant relationships between extent of on-farm tree growing and caste, education of the head of household, family literacy, primary occupation, government employment, mobility of the household head, importance of tree growing for future generations, and holy tree worship practices. Households with concrete houses had more trees than households with mixed, mud and wooden houses. The study implies a need to consider social factors to encourage the level of on-farm tree growing and to design socially acceptable agroforestry programs. The study also emphasises the need for a holistic approach to agroforestry development by integrating other continuing rural development programs with that of agroforestry to increase the level of on-farm tree growing.     

Data recording for agroforestry experiments

Examples of typical data-sets from agroforestry trials are considered and difficulties with the recording of such data are discussed. Suggestions for efficient data recording for a number of agroforestry trials are made so that easy data-checking, efficient computer entry and accurate analysis can be produced without the need for excessive data manipulation at each stage. General recommendations for data-recording from agroforestry trials are given.     

Adoption of On-Farm Tree Planting in Kibaale District,Western Uganda

Using logistic and multiple regression analyses, this article examines the socioeconomic factors that influence farmers’ decisions to adopt on-farm tree planting, one of the agroforestry techniques promoted by government agencies and research institutions for use in the farming systems of Uganda. A household survey involving 200 farmers was carried out in the Subcounties of Kabamba, Mugarama, Kagadi, and Kiryanga in Kibaale District, western Uganda. From the analyses, we found out that a farmer's decision to adopt on-farm tree planting is influenced by household and field characteristics. Gender, tree tenure security, availability of seed and supply, guidance by extension and research Institutions, size of landholding per household, fuelwood scarcity, and main source of family income were the factors that significantly influenced the decision to adopt on-farm tree planting. We recommended that in order to promote increased adoption of on-farm tree planting, appropriate socioeconomic characterization should be explored in order to target areas with better adoption potential for optimal realization of the intended objectives by government agencies and research institutions.     

Do socio-psychological factors matter in agroforestry planning? Lessons from smallholder traditional agroforestry systems

Most of the well planned rural development forestry programs of the 1970s, and agroforestry in particular, were either not adopted by the intended beneficiaries or failed to meet the needs and aspirations of the rural people, particularly in the developing countries. The reasons for non-adoption in some cases appear to be technical, bio-physical, social and economic (termed as rational reasons by the planners), but in other situations the reasons are not so easily recognisable and comprehended (termed irrational reasons). These irrational reasons are the perceptions and attitude of the farmer towards farm practices, and their role in agroforestry planning has remained almost completely neglected. The present study is based on a household survey of the farmers in traditional agroforestry systems of Western Himalaya and investigates the importance of perceptional and attitudinal aspects of the farmers with regard to agroforestry adoption and extension. In the present study, farmers’ perceptions of restrictions on felling of trees from their own land and attitudes towards agroforestry were the most important sociopsychological factors which influenced tree growing. This study implies a need to take into account the socio-psychological factors of the farmers for planning socially acceptable agroforestry programs. The importance of study of various de jure rules and regulations controlling the use of on-farm tree resources and related exemptions and their association with farmers’ perceptions and tree growing is highlighted to develop policies to encourage tree growing in agroforestry.     

Temporal analysis of agroforestry systems for rural development

Temporal analysis is introduced as a method to assess the suitability of agroforestry projects for meeting rural development objectives. This form of analysis provides a common base for examining social, economic, ecological, and managerial aspects of agroforestry systems.Temporal analysis begins by describing projects and the activities comprising them for both an agroforestry system and the local population. Factors constraining the sequence of activities are then examined. The assumptions and values regarding the past, present, or future are also analyzed for all groups involved in the agroforestry system. The range of goal oriented behavior affecting scale and duration of projects may be dependent on this time horizon.By understanding these factors, the changes in activities of a social system that may result from a proposed agroforstry innovation can be anticipated. The nature of these changes and their perception by the local population can be evaluated.     

Within gender differences in tree management: Is gender distinction a reliable concept?

Gender is often a useful distinction for analysis and project design, but in some cases it is too narrowly applied to capture some of the fundamental differences among female producers. Evaluating agroforestry practices in the Siaya and South Nyanza districts of Kenya, the authors argue that, in designing agroforestry interventions and assessing policy or program impacts, there is a need to go beyond simple gender distinctions and look at additional stratifiers such as the individual producer's access to resources, including use rights and control over the benefits from and use of a particular resource. Furthermore, the study reveals some of the difficulties in separating activities and effects by gender in households where agroforestry decisions are often joint. The results of their study show that species choice, tree product marketing and use, and the employment or soil conservation and fertility management practices arenot clearly differentiated by gender, but rather, more variable across the marital status of women.     

Prospects for easing land tenure conflicts with agroforestry in Mediterranean France: a research approach for intercropped timber orchards

Agroforesty plots offer the opportunity to combine annual agricultural production and long-term wood capitalization. The fallow scheme now in operation in Europe intends to reduce the surplus of agricultural products. Agroforestry management could be a valuable alternative to fallow or to forestry plantations on agricultural land.Agroforestry is attractive to agricultural landowners in Mediterranean France, as agroforestry stands are less costly than forestry plantations, are less prone to fire hazards, provide agricultural returns from intercropping during the first twenty years and have many environmental benefits.An experimental network of on-farm agroforestry plots has been set up since 1988 in the Mediterranean part of France. These plots include grazed paddocks (silvopastoral systems) and ungrazed fields (silvoarable systems). They gained support both from landowners and tenants: the former expect a high value treestock, while the latter have a free use of the space between plantation lines. Plantations have been designed to allow easy mechanical intercropping. First results from two experimental sites are discussed. The growth of the trees in the agroforestry plots is much higher than in the control forestry plots.