Smallholder Cacao (Theobroma cacao Linn.) cultivation in agroforestry systems of West and Central Africa: challenges and opportunities

The cultural features, management practice, environmental sustainability, and economic profitability of smallholder cacao (Theobroma cacao)production in West and Central Africa are reviewed. The aim is tohighlight factors affecting the cacao production and marketing sectorand to propose appropriate strategies to ensure sustainable and profitable cacao production in the region. The cacao cultivation system causes minimum damage to soil resources. In terms of carbon sequestration and below- and above-ground bio-diversity, the cacao agroforest is superior to the alternative food crop production land use. The food crop production system is based on the practice of slash-and-burn farming, which, due to population pressure and reduced fallow cycle, is no longer sustainable. Economic profitability analysis of this system in Cameroon showed that, at current prices, even with no value assigned to the tree species, the sector could still be profitable. Based on the current review and our knowledge of West and Central Africa, there is an urgent need to: (a) rationalize and optimize arrangement of the various components in cacao agroforest, (b) domesticate high value and shade tolerant indigenous species such as Gnetum africanum and integrate into the system in order to enhance the system's diversity and profitability, (c) develop shade-tolerant and disease-resistant cacao varieties, (d) integrate small-stock production into the system, and (e) develop an enabling policy environment addressing cacao marketing, plant protection, land tenure and transformation of non-cacao primary products from the cacao agroforests. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Cacao-coconut intercropping in Ghana: agronomic and economic perspectives

In Ghana, shade for cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) is becoming a critical issue because of extensive deforestation. Unlike in some other cacao-growing countries, cacao is not grown under the shade of coconut (Cocos nucifera) in Ghana. An experiment to compare the merits of four cacao-coconut intercropping systems with the traditional cultivation of cacao under Gliricidia sepium shade was undertaken at the Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana. Cacao seedling girth was not affected when intercropped with coconut but was significantly (P = 0.01) reduced when intercropped with G. sepium. High density cacao facilitated better early canopy formation. Yield of cacao spaced at 2.5 m triangular (1739 plants ha^–1) with coconut at 9.8 m triangular (105 plants ha^–1) was significantly higher (P = 0.05) than from the other treatments during 1993/94 to 1995/96. There were no major disease problems associated with intercropping cacao with coconuts. Widely spaced coconuts intercropped with cacao spaced at 3 m × 3 m showed better flowering and gave higher coconut yields, but cacao spaced at 2.5 m triangular under coconuts spaced at 9.8 m triangular was more profitable than the other treatments. Moisture stress was the greatest in cacao system with G. sepium shade and this could be responsible for the low yield of cacao in that treatment. It is suggested that properly arranged high density cacao under widely spaced coconuts can be a profitable intercrop system for adoption by cacao farmers in Ghana.This revised version was published online in November 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Modelling agroforestry systems of cacao (Theobroma cacao) with laurel (Cordia alliodora) and poro (Erythrina poeppigiana) in Costa Rica

The agroforestry systems of cacao (Theobroma cacao) under laurel (Cordia alliodora) and cacao under poro (Erythrina poeppigiana) were studied at CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica. An inventory was taken of the organic matter and nutrients (N, P, K, Ca, and Mg) separating the species into their compartments (leaves, branches, trunks and roots). Studies of the litter and of the mineral soil (0–45 cm) yielded these results: Patterns of nutrient accumulation are discussed in relation to the characteristics of these agroforestry systems.     

Survival, growth, timber productivity and site index of Cordia alliodora in forestry and agroforestry systems

Matching tree species to appropriate site conditions and stand management is crucial for sound agroforestry production. In this study, survival, growth and site index for laurel (Cordia alliodora (Ruiz and Pavón) Oken.) were measured between 1987–1999 in two forestry (line plantings and pure plantations) and four agroforestry systems (taungya and three laurel – cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) systems) in the lowland humid tropics of Costa Rica and Panama. Mortality ranged between 2 and 52% at age nine years. Poor drainage, flooding and high water tables resulted in low laurel survival on some sites. At age 5, laurel site index was 21 m in cacao – plantain (Musa AAB) – laurel associations (CLP), but only 15 m in line plantings. Diameter at breast height at that age was 28.5 cm in CLP and only 15.6 cm in pure plantations. Laurel growth and site index were high when planted in association with intensively managed crops (e.g., cacao, plantain or taungya sequences).     

Using plant architectural models for estimation of radiation transfer in a coconut-based agroforestry system

Software modules have been developed to predict the radiative environment of plant stands consisting of computer 'mock-ups' of plants. The architecture of plants used for the computation of radiative characteristics was described at the level of individual organs and simulated according to botanical rules. Three-dimensional stochastic numeric mock-ups were computed for coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) and for cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) according to the 'AMAP' methodology. Then the numerical radiative models were applied to these 'virtual plants' to describe the radiative budgets of individual plant parts and entire plants. Modelled light transmission through virtual coconut canopies was in good agreement with field measurements for different treatments and management practices including palm ages, varieties, and planting densities. In a second stage, combining the computer models of coconuts and cacao in a multistrata system, the fraction of radiation that was transmitted through the coconut canopy and intercepted by cacao was sucessfully simulated. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Response of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Theobroma cacao</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Inga edulis</Emphasis> seedlings to cross-inoculated populations of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi

Response of Theobroma cacao L. (cacao) and the shade tree Inga edulis Mart. (inga) seedlings from an organically-grown cacao plantation to inoculation with native arbuscular mycorrhizae forming fungi (AMF) was studied in a cross-inoculation assay under greenhouse conditions. Seedlings of inga and cacao were grown in pots filled with heat-treated soil from the plantation. Control was heat-treated soil without inoculum and roots of cacao and inga from the plantation were applied as AMF inocula. Undisturbed soil blocks were used as a “positive control” of the inoculation potential of untreated soil and roots combined. No AMF structures were observed in the roots of either species in the heat-treated control. All inocula were infective in both hosts and the differences in the total AMF colonization percentage between the hosts were not significant but inga had significantly higher colonization by hyphal coils and arbuscules. Cacao roots but neither inga roots nor soil block inocula stimulated cacao growth. All inocula significantly increased growth of inga, which had higher relative mycorrhizal responsiveness than cacao. Thus, in spite of the strong infectivity of the inocula in both hosts, cacao and inga responded differently to the same AMF populations. The strong conspecific preference of cacao suggests that attention must be paid to the AMF inoculum used for this species. However, the strong response of inga to cacao root inoculum indicates that the two species may share same AMF symbionts, thus enabling positive interactions between them, including formation of common mycelial networks.     

Factors affecting the dynamics of tree diversity in agroforestry parklands of cereal and cotton farming systems in Burkina Faso

Despite their socio-economic and ecological role, many studies have shown that the parklands are degrading very rapidly. Therefore, there is a need to undertake restoration actions for both production and environmental services. To do so, there is a need to identify factors that are affecting the dynamics of parkland systems. The present study aimed at characterizing and quantifying tree diversity of parkland systems taking into consideration the household’s wealth status, land uses, market access and the type of farming system (cereal based on the “Plateau Central” and cotton based in “Boucle du Mouhoun”). Six villages (Kienfangué, Ipelcé, and Kuizili with easy access to the market and, Karang-Tanghin, Nionsna and Targho with poor access to the market) in the “Plateau Central” and six villages (Bondoukuy, Ouahabou and Yaho with easy access to the market and, Dora, Fakéna and Mamou with poor access to the market) in “Boucle du Mouhoun” were studied. In each village, the Participatory Analysis of Poverty and Livelihood Dynamics method was used by rural farmers to rank farmer households of their communities and that gave three groups of wealth status that are poor, fairly well-off and well-off. Five households representing each of the three wealth groups in each village, giving a total of 15 households per village, were randomly selected by wealth group. Tree/shrub inventories were conducted in all land use types (house fields, village fields and bush fields) of the 180 selected households for the 12 studied sites. The number of species in the different land use types ranged from 96 to 102, but the majority of species were represented by less than 10 individuals. This indicates the selection effect made by the farmers to the parklands. Land use and farming system showed a clear effect on tree diversity in parklands. The effect of accessibility to market was evident in some cases whereas wealth status did not show any effect. Despite the statistical significant effect of farming system and land use type, the ANOVA models accounted for relatively little variation, indicating that other factors may contribute to tree diversity in parkland systems. The most threatened species were Adansonia digitata, Afzelia africana, Bombax costatum, Celtis integrifolia, Ficus asperifolia, Ficus iteophylla, Lannea velutina, and Parkia biglobosa. These species were represented in the largest diameter class (≥80 cm) or showed very few individuals in the different diameter classes. Due to the increasing degradation of the parklands, a domestication and conservation strategy of key threatened species needs to be developed and implemented with the participation of local communities.     

Detection of nitrogen transfer from N<Subscript>2</Subscript>-fixing shade trees to cacao saplings in <Superscript>15</Superscript>N labelled soil: ecological and experimental considerations

Theobroma cacao seedlings were grown alone (TCA) or associated with saplings of N₂-fixing shade trees Gliricidia sepium and Inga edulis in 200 l of ¹⁵N labelled soil within a physical root barrier for studying direct nitrogen transfer between the trees and cacao. Root:shoot partitioning ratio for sapling total N was lower than biomass root:shoot ratio in all species. Sapling total ¹⁵N was partitioned between root and shoot in about the same ratio as total N in cacao and inga but in gliricidia much higher proportion of ¹⁵N than total N was found in roots. Thus, whole plant harvesting should be used in ¹⁵N studies whenever possible. Average percentage of fixed N out of total tree N was 74 and 81% for inga estimated by a yield-independent and yield-dependent method, respectively, and 85% for gliricidia independently of estimation method. Strong isotopic evidence on direct N transfer from trees to cacao was observed in two cases out of ten with both tree species. Direct N transfer was not correlated with mycorrhizal colonisation of either donor or receiver plant roots. Direct N transfer from inga and gliricidia to cacao is conceivable but its prevalence and the transfer pathway via mycorrhizal connections or via reabsorption of N-rich legume root exudates by cacao require further study. Competition in the restricted soil space may also have limited the apparent transfer in this study because the trees accumulated more soil-derived N than cacao in spite of active N₂ fixation.     

The role of cacao plantations in maintaining forest avian diversity in southeastern Costa Rica

We conducted 600 ten-minute, fixed-radius point counts in two climatically different seasons in forest, abandoned cacao (Theobroma cacao), and managed cacao habitat from September 1997 through April 1998 in the Talamanca lowlands of Costa Rica. A total of 1,464, 1,713, and 1,708 individual birds and 130, 131, and 144 total species were detected in forest, abandoned cacao, and managed cacao, respectively. Independent of season, cacao habitats had a significantly greater number of individuals and species per point than forest. Community similarity analyses based on guild categorizations revealed a significant degree of similarity among all habitats; however, habitat affinity analyses showed cacao habitats having significantly less forest specialists than forest. A multiple linear regression model for actively managed cacao habitat using habitat and landscape variables revealed density and diversity of canopy tree species to be significantly correlated with numbers of forest specialist species detected per point. Although nearest distance to forest was negatively correlated with the number of forest specialist species per point, it was not a significant variable in the model, possibly indicating the complex and unpredictable nature of bird movements within the complex habitat mosaic of Talamanca. The present forest bird community of the Talamanca lowlands is poor in forest specialist species relative to other forested Caribbean lowland sites. The broad patterns of avifaunal distribution illustrated by our results suggest, therefore, that although cacao plantations cannot substitute for forest, they provide habitat for a large number of species which depend to some degree on forests. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Financial evaluation of smallholder timber-based agroforestry systems in Claveria, Northern Mindanao, the Philippines

In the Philippines, timber production on small farms has become profitable as a result of reduced supplies due to extensive deforestation and increasing demand. In the early 1990s, when the price of timber was high, farmers were promised huge returns from tree farming. However, widespread planting of few species has led to oversupply and a sharp decline in the price of farm-grown timber. Moreover, low intercrop yields as a result of competition from fast-growing trees and low timber yields due to poor tree management, further reduce net economic returns. In spite of this, interest in tree farming remains high. This paper examines the private profitability of two tree-maize systems, namely trees in blocks and trees in hedgerows, compared with the alternative of maize monocropping. The analysis reveals that maize monocropping provides higher returns to land at the current timber price, but considerably lower returns to labour, than the maize-tree systems tested. This suggests that tree farming is a more attractive option for labour and capital-constrained households or those with off-farm opportunities that compete for their labour. These farmers may raise productivity and income by planting trees on the excess land that cannot be devoted to annual crops. The analysis also indicates that wide-spaced tree hedgerows are superior to tree blocks, due to lower establishment and management costs, longer periods of viable intercropping and more rapid tree growth.     

The farming system and traditional agroforestry systems in the Maya community of San Jose, Belize

Shifting slash-and-burn agriculture is likely one of the main causes of forest degradation in southern Belize. Although many development projects have attempted to reduce the impacts of agriculture on the tropical rainforest, the situation is still a cause for concern. A study of the farming system of the San Jose Maya community was therefore carried out to examine agricultural production in its social, cultural, economic, and political context. Results demonstrate that agricultural production contributes to forest degradation because of the limited availability of agricultural land, the low level of investment in agricultural production, the land tenure system, limited marketing opportunities, and the exclusion of Mayas from the country's political and economic domains. Agroforestry could, however, offer a partial solution to the problem of forest degradation. Three types of traditional agroforestry systems are practised in San Jose: the milpa (a slash-and-burn agriculture system), cacao (Theobroma cacao) cultivation under shade trees, and the homegarden. These traditional agroforestry systems almost entirely meet a family's needs for food and wood, and generate at least 62% of family income. Improving the productivity of these systems could help to reduce pressure on the forest in southern Belize.This revised version was published online in November 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Potential of some Neotropical Albizia species as shade trees whenreplanting cacao in Ghana

The Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana has embarked on studies to support the replanting of cacao (Theobroma cacao L) in areas, which previously carried the crop but are now degraded. A key component of the studies is to identify fast growing tree species capable of ameliorating degraded soils and ultimately providing suitable shade for cacao. A screening trial involving ten Albizia species in a randomized complete block design experiment was therefore initiated in 1996 to evaluate growth rate, leaf biomass production, carbon and nitrogen contents and decomposition rates. Over a four-year period, Albizia adenocephala, A. guachapele, A. niopoides, A. plurijuga,A. saman and A. tomentosa showed promising results, with 12.2 to 14.5 m height and between 12.4 and 22.4 cm stem diameter (DBH). Crown diameter ranged between 6.1 and 10.1 m, with light transmission through crowns averaging 50–65% of full sunlight throughout the year. Half-yearly leaf biomass production ranged between 3and 10 t ha^–1, yielding between 0.07 and 0.32 t N ha^–1 from each coppicing. Half-life for carbon and nitrogen release from leaves of the six species averaged 31.0 and 32.0 days respectively. This short-term release of C and N is an indication of the quality of the leaf prunings. These species can provide early ground cover, appropriate shade, N and organic matter requirements for re-establishing cacao on denuded and degraded lands. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Distribution of oxidizable organic C fractions in soils under cacao agroforestry systems in Southern Bahia,Brazil

Agroforestry systems can play a major role in the sequestration of carbon (C) because of their higher input of organic material to the soil. The importance of organic carbon to the physical, chemical, and biological aspects of soil quality is well recognized. However, total organic carbon measurements might not be sensitive indicators of changes in soil quality. Adoption of procedures that can extract the more labile fraction preferentially might be a more useful approach for the characterization of soil organic carbon resulting from different soils. This study aimed to evaluate organic carbon (C) fractions distribution in different soil layers up to 50 cm depth in two soil orders under cacao (Theobroma cacao) agroforestry systems (AFS) in Bahia, Brazil. Soil samples were collected from four depth classes (0–5, 5–10, 10–30 and 30–50 cm) under two cacao agroforestry systems (30-year-old stands of cacao with Erythrina glauca, as shade trees) in Latosol and Cambisol, in Bahia, Brazil. The determination of oxidizable carbon by a modified Walkley–Black method was done to obtain four C fractions with different labile forms of C (fraction 1: labile fraction; fraction 2: moderate labile fraction; fraction 3: low labile fraction and fraction 4: recalcitrant fraction). Overall, at two cacao AFS, the C fractions generally declined with increase in soil depth. The C fractions 1 and 2 were 50% higher on upper layers (0–5 and 5–10 cm). More than 50% of organic C was found in more labile fraction (fraction 1) in all depths for both soils. High value of C fraction 1 (more labile C)-to-total organic C ratio was obtained (around 54–59%, on Latosol and Cambisol, respectively), indicating large input of organic matter in these soils.     

Financial returns, stability and risk of cacao-plantain-timber agroforestry systems in Central America

Diversification of agroecosystems has long been recognized as a sound strategy to cope with price and crop yield variability, thus increasing farm income stability and lowering financial risk. In this study, the financial returns, stability and risk of six cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) – laurel (Cordia alliodora (R&P) Oken) – plantain (Musa AAB) agroforestry systems, and the corresponding monocultures, were compared. Production and cost data were obtained from an on-going eight-year old experiment. The agroforestry systems included a traditional system and a replacement series between cacao (278, 370, 556, 741 and 833 plants ha^–1) and plantain (833, 741, 556, 370 and 278 plants ha^–1) with a constant laurel population (timber tree; 69 trees ha^–1). An ex-post analysis was conducted using experimental and secondary data to build a simulation model over a 12-year period under different price assumptions. The probability distribution functions for the three commodity prices were modeled and simulated through time, accounting for their possible autocorrelation and non-normality. The expected net incomes from the agroforestry systems were considerably higher than from monocultures. The agroforestry systems were also less risky. Agroforestry systems with proportionally more cacao than plantain were less risky, but also less stable. The timber component (C. alliodora) was a key factor in reducing farmer's financial risks. Methodologically, the study illustrates a technique to evaluate both expected returns and the corresponding financial risks to obtain a complete, comparable profile of alternative systems. It shows the need to allow for the possibility of non-normality in the statistical distributions of the variables entering a financial risk and return analysis.     

P transformations in cacao agroforests soils in the Atlantic forest region of Bahia,Brazil

Little is known about the phosphorus (P) fractions and P lability of agroforest soils in tropical regions, particularly those of cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) agroforests. We hypothesized that the effect of P fertilization on the distribution of P fractions in the soil based on the source-sink relationship differs for different cacao agroforestry systems. The cacao agroforestry systems studied were the following: open cacao-cabruca, closed cacao-cabruca, cacao + erythrina, mixed cacao + rubber tree, and cacao + rubber tree intercropping. A natural forest and an unfertilized pasture were used as reference systems. The P fractions were determined using the Hedley sequential extraction method, and the P transformation processes were evaluated via structural equation modeling. The impact of low P fertilizer input on the P fractions varied according to the specific environmental conditions of each cacao production system. Consequently, there was high dissimilarity among all of the cacao sites. In all of the cacao agroforestry systems, there was an increase in inorganic P (Pi), especially the labile fraction (resin-Pi and NaHCO₃-Pi), but organic P (Po) increased only in the cacao + erythrina system and in the rubber tree planting row of the cacao + rubber tree intercropping system. As a result, the fitted structural models indicated that the inter-relationships of the geochemical processes were more important for determining the P availability than the biological processes. However, the Po concentrations and relative proportion were high in all of the cacao agroforestry systems, thereby revealing the high potential of supplying P to plants via the mineralization process in the eventual removal of mineral fertilization.     

Research methods for multistrata agroforestry systems with coffee and cacao: recommendations from two decades of research at CATIE

This paper reviews the research themes and methodologies used by CATIE in agroforestry research with shade trees over coffee (Coffea arabica) and cacao (Theobroma cacao) during the past 20 years. Initially research focused on characterization and production studies (of crop and timber including border areas) of traditional systems using temporary and permanent sample plots on private farms. The assessment area of traditional shade-coffee (or cacao) systems should be the whole plot, including the border areas, and not some subjectively selected central area which supposedly represents unit area productivity. Uncontrolled crop, tree, and management heterogeneity limited extrapolation of early on-farm research results to other farmers' fields. Replicated case studies of best bet technologies (traditional or experimental) on different farms are often preferable to the use of formal experimental designs. On-station research included the use of systematic spacing designs to test extreme shade tree density treatments of coffee. Most nutrient cycling studies were also carried out on-station, using service and timber shade species over coffee and cacao to evaluate the ability of these agroforestry systems to maintain nutrient reserves and diversify production. Plot size (even 36 × 36 m) was limiting for long term research because of inter-plot interference, both below- and above ground, when using fast growing, tall timber trees as shade. These experiences suggest a minimum plot size of 2,500 m². Individual tree designs and tree-crop interface studies (e.g. regression analysis of data taken along transects) are promising experimental/sampling approaches that need further development. The principal research thrusts proposed for the next five years are bio-physical process research on coffee responses to shade and competition with trees (growth, carbon allocation, phenology, disease-pest tolerance, yields and coffee quality effects) and socioeconomic analyses of both traditional and new or improved shade – coffee combinations vs. monocultures. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Shade management in coffee and cacao plantations

Shade trees reduce the stress of coffee (Coffea spp.) and cacao (Theobroma cacao) by ameliorating adverse climatic conditions and nutritional imbalances, but they may also compete for growth resources. For example, shade trees buffer high and low temperature extremes by as much as 5 °C and can produce up to 14 Mg ha^-1 yr^-1 of litterfall and pruning residues, containing up to 340 kg N ha^-1 yr^-1. However, N₂ fixation by leguminous shade trees grown at a density of 100 to 300 trees ha^-1 may not exceed 60 kg N ha^-1 yr^-1. Shade tree selection and management are potentially important tools for integrated pest management because increased shade may increase the incidence of some commercially important pests and diseases (such as Phythphora palmivora and Mycena citricolor) and decrease the incidence of others (such as Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and Cercospora coffeicola). In Central America, merchantable timber production from commercially important shade tree species, such as Cordia alliodora, is in the range of 4–6m³ ha^-1 yr^-1. The relative importance and overall effect of the different interactions between shade trees and coffee/cacao are dependent upon site conditions (soil/climate), component selection (species/varieties/provenances), belowground and aboveground characteristics of the trees and crops, and management practices. On optimal sites, coffee can be grown without shade using high agrochemical inputs. However, economic evaluations, which include off-site impacts such as ground water contamination, are needed to judge the desirability of this approach. Moreover, standard silvicultural practices for closed plantations need to be adapted for open-grown trees within coffee/cacao plantations. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Livestock activities in agroforestry systems in Guadeloupe: systems of production and functions

The value enhancement of Guadeloupe's private forests (48% of the total) is a major challenge for the territory in terms of agroecological transition combined with diverse ecosystem services (ES). In many Latin American regions, agroforestry systems (AFS) include a significant proportion of livestock, but very few are described in Guadeloupe. In this study, AFS including livestock activities were classified through semi-open interviews (n?=?50) based on two dimensions: the agricultural region and the farmer’s main production strategy. Results showed that, on average, AFS are family farming systems (more than 30%) and the percentage of farmers with multiple activities is high (77%). Mixed tree-crop-livestock systems are very frequent, with 1/3rd of the sub-units devoted to animal husbandry. Farmers preferably raise small ruminants, backyard animals, and large herbivores (20 to 25% of answers each), and to a lesser extent raise pigs and keep bees (12% each). Mixed animal units exist (50%) with between two and six species. More than 80% of farmers use their farm resources (pastures, natural fodder trees or crop by-products) to feed their animals. Even though self-consumption remains widespread (50% of responses), 80% of the farmers want to give a more economic orientation to their activities. The other responses (16%) concerned socio-cultural functions. Several ES are described and are discussed here at different levels (farm, territory, society). In conclusion, in the forested area of Guadeloupe, there is a potential for the development of efficient livestock farming using an agroecological approach. Complete mixed systems (tree-crop-livestock) should be promoted for the provision of multiple ES.

     

Revitalizing Mountain Ginseng Cultivation in North Jeolla Province,South Korea

A study was made of measures to revitalize mountain ginseng cultivation in the eastern mountainous area of Muju, Jinan and Jangsu municipalities of North Jeolla province, South Korea. The targeted area is typical forested land and is utilized for the cultivation of ginseng. Access to seeds and seedlings for mountain ginseng cultivation is relatively easy in North Jeolla province, and the species is cultivated widely (on 63 % of the area of the province and by 74 % of farmers). This study investigated the current state of mountain ginseng cultivation and business management, including production costs and subsidy, sales and distribution system, and other business management concerns. A survey was conducted on 86 mountain ginseng-cultivating farming households living in the targeted area in 2013. It is concluded that to achieve greater production an aggressive government policy promoting the renting out of suitable sites for mountain ginseng cultivation in national and public production forestland to individual farms and farming cooperatives is necessary. Further research on increasing the survival rate of cultivated mountain ginseng (CMG) until harvesting and preventing damage by wild animals is also deemed necessary. More effective use of related municipal budget subsidy needs to be supported selectively to the enterprising farmers who aggressively pursue mountain ginseng cultivation and business management. Opening CMG retail stores to realize sustainable income growth and developing various processed products will increase farm income. The government needs to introduce policies to sustain consumer trust in CMG through initiatives such as establishing a CMG quality management system for growers, distributing government-approved seeds, and implementing a government-based CMG purchase system.     

Genetic diversity and population structure in wild stands of cacao trees (Theobroma cacao L.) in French Guiana

The native cacao trees (Theobroma cacao L.) in south-eastern French Guiana represent a noteworthy fraction of the genetic diversity of this species. Several scientific surveys have led to the collection of numerous accessions, which provides an opportunity for investigating the pattern of genetic diversity in natural populations. Using a capillary electrophoresis genotyping system, we fingerprinted 189 wild trees in 18 natural populations. Based on the 15 loci SSR profiles, we analyzed the intra- and inter-population variation and their relationship with control clones. The global allelic richness was 4.87 alleles per locus, but was 2.4 on average within individual populations; gene diversity was 0.368 and observed heterozygosity was low (0.160). Major structuring was discovered in the metapopulation of French Guianan wild cacao trees (Fst = 0.20), which could be explained by the biological characteristics of the cacao tree and the climatic events that affected the Guianan forests in the Quaternary period.