林带冬季相结构参数及透风系数的算法推导

从林带结构参数——疏透度β、立木表面积疏透度S’、立木体积疏透度V’、地上生物表面积密度C、地上生物体积密度W的定义和运算关系出发,推演出冬季相林带结构参数之间、以及它们与林带透风系数α、林带宽度D、枝条平均直径d的相互关系,其表达式为:W=V’/D=1/4dC=dS’/4D=-πdlnβ/4D=-0.1πdlnα/D该式是对几个主要结构参数之间具有同质性的证明,说明不同结构参数概念具有本质上的继承性和一致性,不存在严格意义上的排他性,在一定条件下是可以换算的,为林带防风效应评价运算提供了方便。导出一组适合我国北方干旱风沙区农田防护林带防风效应评价的运算公式。     

Algorithm Derivation of Winter Facies Wind Protection of Shelterbelts Structural Parameters and Wind Permeability Coefficient

To solve the problem in the absence of permeability algorithm in China’s forestry industry standard "Technical Specification for Oasis Shelter Belt Construction(LY/T 1682—2006)",by defining and calculating the forest structural parameters-porosityβ,stumpage surface porosity S",stumpage volume porosity V’,aboveground surface area density C,aboveground bulk density W,the relations among these structural parameters and their relations with wind permeability coefficientα,shelterbelt width D and mean diameter of branch d were calculated,which is expressed as:W=V’/D=dC/4 =dS’/4D=-πdlnβ/4D = -0.1πZdlnα/D.It is proofed that the main structural parameters have homogeneity and different structural parameters are of inheritance and consistency on the nature,there is no exclusivity in the strict sense,and is convertible under certain conditions,which is convenient for evaluating the wind-resistance effect of shelterbelt. A set of computational formulas for wind effect evaluation of farmland shelterbelt in dry and sandy area in northern China is derived.     

Spacing interval between principal tree windbreaks--Based on the relationship between windbreak structure and wind reduction

Relative windspeed reduction was measured behind nine relatively narrow, homogenous tree windbreaks with porosities between 0.13-0.33, and behind 28 combinations of model stubble barriers representing 25 different optical porosities (0.00-0.80). The optimum porosities observed were 0.25 and 0.13 for tree windbreaks and stubble barriers respectively. Based on the relationship between windbreak structure (optical porosity) and wind reduction, the chief indices for determining spacing interval, i.e., the windbreak structure index (δ) and the parameter of microclimate, represented by the problem wind (Lrp), were determined. Additionally, investigations on shelterbelt trees were carried out, and stem-analysis techniques were used, to develop a method for determining the mature height of tree windbreaks (H0). Optimal spacing intervals between windbreaks could be predicted from the indices of a given windbreak structure, percentage of reduction of windspeed desired and tree growth model. A hypothetical example for determining the spacing interval of principal poplar windbreaks is given at the end of this paper. The results can be applied not only to tree windbreak design but also to other plant materials and artificial barriers for wind protection.     

农田防护林主带间距离的确定——基于林带结构与风速降低的关系(英文)

本文通过对9条分布均匀、相对较窄的不同疏透度(透光疏透度,下同)(0.13～0.33)的树木林带和不同疏透度(0.00～0.80)风障组合的野外风速观测,确定了树木林带和风障的最适疏透度分别为0.25和0.13。基于林带结构(疏透度)与风速降低的关系,确定了林带主带间距离的主要参数,即,林带结构系数(δ)和以主害风为代表的小气候参数(Lrp)。另外,通过对林带树木的野外调查,应用树木解析技术确定林带成林高(H0)。因此,树木林带的主带间距可以通过林带结构系数、希望降低风速的比例和树木生长模型来确定。本文以杨树林带为例,具体确定了杨树林带的主带间距。该研究结果不仅适于树木林带的设计,同时适于其它生物材料或人工风障的设计。图4表5参40。     

Impact of wind direction on diurnal and seasonal changes in wind profiles

We explored the relationship between directional variation (changes in direction from a reference point) in vegetation and wind profiles, and propose an empirical wind profile model that may reproduce the wind profile within the canopy (such as secondary wind maximum) and reduce calculation loads. Based on the results of our observations in secondary broad-leaved forest, we clarified the variation in secondary wind maximum and aerodynamic parameters in wind direction, and assessed the influence of forest structural heterogeneity on the wind profile. Wind blew from specific directions depending on the time of day and season, and secondary wind maxima were observed in particular wind directions. Outlier estimations of aerodynamic parameters were determined for wind directions of 45°, 120–210°, and 300°, and these did not show a logarithmic distribution. Our proposed model reproduced the wind profile within and above the canopy, closely resembling K-theory and closure models, and reduced the required number of calculations and observations. The influence of forest structural heterogeneity was greatest in the upper part of the canopy (9.14 m), and reproducibility of the wind profile was improved by 0.05 m/s (3.4% on average) by changing the forest structural parameters of the model according to the wind direction. It was clear that forest structural heterogeneity did not cause critical errors in estimation of the wind profile, even at our study site, which had complex forest structure.     

农田防护林主要间距离的确定——基于林带结构与风速降低的关系

Relative windspeed reduction was measured behind nine relatively narrow, homogenous tree windbreaks with porosities between 0.13–0.33, and behind 28 combinations of model stubble barriers representing 25 different optical porosities (0.00–0.80). The optimum porosities observed were 0.25 and 0.13 for tree windbreaks and stubble barriers respectively. Based on the relationship between windbreak structure (optical porosity) and wind reduction, the chief indices for determining spacing interval, i.e., the windbreak structure index (δ) and the parameter of microclimate, represented by the problem wind (L _rp ), were determined. Additionally, investigations on shelterbelt trees were carried out, and stem-analysis techniques were used, to develop a method for determining the mature height of tree windbreaks (H ₀). Optimal spacing intervals between windbreaks could be predicted from the indices of a given windbreak structure, percentage of reduction of windspeed desired and tree growth model. A hypothetical example for determining the spacing interval of principal poplar windbreaks is given at the end of this paper. The results can be applied not only to tree windbreak design but also to other plant materials and artificial barriers for wind protection. Foundation item: This study was supported by Innovation Research Project of Chinese Academy of Sciences Biography: ZHU Jiao-jun (1965-), male, Ph. Doctor, PhD advisor. Professor of Institute of Applied Ecology, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, China, Scholar researcher of Faculty of Agriculture, Niigata University, Japan. Responsible editor: Song Funan     

防火林带迎风面风速分布规律的风洞试验

采用风洞模拟方法,对通风结构、疏透结构和紧密结构3种防火林带迎风面的风速进行测定,绘制了3种结构防火林带迎风面的相对风速等值线图;根据风速的分布特征,采用多模型选优的方法,确定了山脊防火林带迎风面的相对风速预测模型。结果表明:紧密结构与疏透结构的防火林带迎风面的阻风性能比较好,最小相对风速达到70%以下,而通风结构的阻风性能最小,迎风面的最小相对风速在80%左右。如考虑其综合防火效能则以疏透结构的防火林带阻火性能最佳。     

树木、林内、林冠上与森林区风速廓线研究

One of the most important and frequently studied variable in forests and the most basic element in governing transport processes of airflow is wind speed. The study of wind profile, defined as the change of wind velocity with height, and wind velocity are important because of tree physiological and developmental responses. Generally, wind profiles above the ground or at a canopy surface follow classical logarithm law, but wind profiles in a single tree and in a forest stand are not logarithmic. This paper summarizes the results of wind profile studies within a single tree, in a forest stand, above the forest canopy and in a forest area from recent research in a coastal pine forest. The results demonstrate that: 1) wind profiles with in a single conifer tree crown showed an exponential function with height, 2) wind profiles in forest stands were able to be expressed by attenuation coefficient of wind, 3) wind profiles over a forest canopy could be determined using profile parameters (friction velocity, roughness length and displacement), and 4) for a forest area, the extreme wind speed could be predicted reasonably using the methods developed for the design of buildings. More research will be required to demonstrate: 1) relationships between wind profiles and tree or stand characteristics, 2) the simple methods for predicting wind profile parameters, and 3) the applications of wind profile in studies of tree physiology, forest ecology and management, and the detail ecological effects of wind on tree growth.     

Wind profiles in a coastal forest of Japanese black pine (Pinus thunbergii Parl.) with different thinning intensities

Simultaneous measurements of windspeed were made outside and inside a pine (Pinus thunbergii Parl.) coastal forest with different thinning intensities. Synchronously, optical stratification porosity (OSP), which is defined as vertical distribution of the proportion of sky hemisphere not obscured by tree elements inside a forest stand, was estimated using hemispherical silhouettes in each treatment area. Based on the observations, the frequency distribution of velocity, turbulence intensity, wind profile, and the corresponding relationships of these respective parameters with the vertical forest structure (OSP) were examined and compared among the treatment areas. A normal distribution of wind velocity was observed at the lower zone of the forest stand in all treatment areas. The turbulence intensity, the highest value of which was found near the canopy, changed greatly with height, wind velocity, and treatment, and decreased with windspeed and increased with the thinning intensity. It was found that the exponential relationship between windspeed and height could be used to describe the wind profiles within the canopy of the coastal forest. The results demonstrate that the attenuation coefficient of the wind profile corresponds to the grade of thinning intensities. The wind patterns in a coastal forest with different thinning intensities are related to the vertical forest structure, particularly, wind profiles within the canopy are closely correlated with the distribution of OSP. The results indicate that wind profiles can be estimated simply based on the measurement of OSP with a very high coefficient of determination. Reciprocally, the estimation of OSP can also be obtained from the measurement of wind profile. Portions of this paper were presented at the 111st Annual Meeting of the Japanese Forestry Society. Appreciation is due to Professor Masashi Yamamoto, Mr. Kenji Sakioka, Mr. Takahiro Yoshida, Mr. Hirotaka Yamazaki, Mr. Yasunori Hasegawa and the members of the Sabo Division of the Faculty of Agriculture of Niigata University for their help in collecting the field data and in constructing the observation towers.     

Effects of light availability and tree size on the architecture of assimilative surface in the canopy of Picea abies: variation in needle morphology

Needle dimensions, needle surface area, needle dry weight per area (LWA) and needle density (ND, needle weight per volume) were measured in terminal current-year shoots in a natural canopy of variably sized Picea abies (L.) Karst. trees growing along a light gradient. Needle shape was described as a rhomboid. Needle width (D(2)) increased with increasing diffuse site factor, a(d) (relative amount of penetrating diffuse solar radiation), whereas needle thickness (D(1)) remained nearly constant, resulting in an inverse relationship between D(1)/D(2) and a(d) and an increase in the ratio of total (TLA) to projected needle surface area (PLA) with increasing a(d). Because of the variations in needle morphology with respect to light availability, the shoot parameters used in present canopy models are also expected to be light-sensitive, and studies involving shoot morphology should also consider the variability in needle geometry. Needle dimensions and total tree height were not correlated. However, LWA increase with both increasing a(d) and total tree height. When LWA was expressed as the product of ND and needle height (NH, height of the rhomboidal transverse section of a needle), LWA appeared to increase with irradiance, because of changing NH, and with total tree height, because of changing needle density.     

台湾地区台中市筏子溪农田林网景观设计研究

筏子溪位于我国台湾地区台中市区城市与乡镇结合的位置,有大面积的农田,常年多风害,农业生产环境不稳定。通过对农田林网的研究梳理及案例研究,归纳出林网的布局、林带的构成、树种的选择和作物的种植方式4个构建农田林网的要素。对筏子溪流域的农地从树种选择、林网构建、时序设计3个方面进行设计实践,完善农田林网景观的设计体系。最后,讨论了农田林网的生态效应、经济效益、文化服务3种景观服务功能。农田林网景观设计是农业生产应对全球气候变化和可持续发展的有效途径。     

相思树种在沿海沙地不同立地环境中的应用效果

通过测定生长量和抗风性能等指标,研究了厚荚相思、马占相思、大叶相思、纹荚相思等树种在沿海后沿沙地、木麻黄基干林带采伐迹地、风口困难立地等不同立地环境中的应用效果。结果表明:厚荚相思、纹荚相思和马占相思等3个树种为适宜在沿海后沿沙地上生长的相思树种,它们的树高年平均生长量大于1.0 m.a-1,胸径年平均生长量大于1.0 cm.a-1;厚荚相思生长快,林分郁闭早,抗风能力强,具有较强的固氮能力,是一个基干林带更新较为理想的树种;厚荚相思对沙荒风口大风、流沙和严重干旱等恶劣生境适应性较强,生长最大,是风口困难立地造林的可取树种。     

小网格农田防护林系统的结构,功能及其效益

文章论述了小网格农田防护林系统的组成结构及其功能效益,经系统连续观测与统计分析表明,与原有泰山青杨林网相比,蓄积增益幅度达297～399%,经济收益增加3.86～5.56倍,还使胁地减产区面积由9.4%缩小到1～2%;农桐间作作与单一农作物栽培群落相比,抗御干热风能力提高了7～20%,每亩每年平均增收49元.     

小叶锦鸡儿平茬复壮更新技术研究

小叶锦鸡儿是我国北方干旱地区主要造林树种之一,在乌兰察布市后山地区及三北防护林中广泛应用,在风蚀荒漠化防治中起着重要作用。本文针对不同林龄小叶锦鸡儿灌木林进行平茬复壮试验,为灌木防护林的经营管理提供依据。     

东北平原农田防护林规格的研究

东北平原农田防护林已经形成了比较完整的林网体系。本研究分析了农田防护林网全方位的防风作用、防霜作用以及林网内的综合气候效益场。在林网内,全方位防风效能大于10%的区域为防护效益区。作物产量和质量分析表明,林网的防护范围为25倍树高。根据高生长分析确定了构成农田防护林主要杨树品种的成林高度。根据综合分析确定适宜农田防护林网的规格为400m×400m。图7表3参11。     

‘华宁大砂壳核桃’不同树形冠层特性与其产量的相关性研究

【目的】探索适宜的‘华宁大砂壳核桃’高产树形,从而为该品种核桃高产树形的培养和整形修剪提供参考依据和技术指导。【方法】以10年生‘华宁大砂壳核桃’树为研究对象,利用HemiView数字植物冠层分析仪测定其冠层特性参数,对比研究了该品种主干分层形、开心形和自然圆头形3种树形的树体结构、冠层特性参数和单株产量的差异性,还分析了其冠层特性与单株产量间的相关性。【结果】主干分层形的总透光比为0.207,显著低于其他两种树形(P<0.05);主干分层形的叶面积指数为1.574,显著高于其他两种树形的(P<0.05);3种树形的综合光立地系数、直射光立地系数和散射光立地系数的大小顺序均为开心形>自然圆头形>主干分层形,且开心形树形的直射光立地系数和散射光立地系数与其他两种树形间均存在显著差异(P<0.05);主干分层形树冠层截获的总辐射能相比于开心形和自然圆头形的分别增加了9.9%和9.2%,其直射辐射能分别增加了10.2%和9.7%;单株平均产量,主干分层形的为110.90 kg,显著高于其他两种树形的(P<0.05)。相关性分析结果表明:冠层总透光比、散射光立地系数与单株产量均呈显著负相关(P<0.01);叶面积指数、冠层截获的总辐射能和单株产量均呈显著正相关(P<0.01),冠层截获的直接辐射能与单株产量呈显著正相关(P<0.05)。【结论】从单株产量来看,该地区大砂壳核桃的3种整形修剪树形中,主干分层形要高于自然圆头形和开心形树形。     

Effects of species and shelterbelt structure on wind speed reduction in shelter

Live shelterbelts are common elements in coastal land areas and play an important role in reducing wind speed and sand drift. A simple measured index, that well represents relationship between shelterbelt structure and wind speed reduction, is required by landowners to enable them in establishing more effective shelterbelts. A three-dimensional crown (3D) density is proposed, which can be easily identified through shelterbelt parameters including maximum height, shelterbelt width, vertical crown/stem area ratio, and horizontal crown/stem area ratio. The utility of the index was tested in 10-year-old Casuarina equisetifolia and in 7-year-old Acacia auriculiformis shelterbelts in north central Coast of Vietnam. There was a significant negative linear relationship (R ² = 0.64, p < 0.001) between 3D density and wind speed reduction efficiency, while there was no relationship between a two-dimensional crown density and wind speed reduction efficiency. Reduction efficiency was found to increase at higher wind speeds in shelterbelts of A. auriculiformis, but not C. equisetifolia. The A. auriculiformis shelterbelt was more efficient in reducing wind speed compared to C. equisetifolia shelterbelt. The former recovered 70 % wind speed at 130 m (16.5H) leeward, while it recovered 70 % at 85 m (8H) leeward in C. equisetifolia shelterbelt.     

Three-dimensional light structure of an upland Quercus stand post-tornado disturbance

Light is the most common limiting factor in forest plant communities,influencing species composition,stand structure,and stand productivity in closed canopy stands.Stand vertical light structure is relatively simple under a closed canopy because most light is captured by overstory trees.However,wind disturbance events create canopy openings from local to landscape scales that increase understory light intensity and vertical light structural complexity.We studied the effects of an EF-1 tornado on horizontal and vertical(i.e.three-dimensional)light structure within a Quercus stand to determine how light structure changed with increasing disturbance severity.We used a two-tiered method to collect photosynthetic photon flux density at 4.67 m and 1.37 m above the forest floor to construct three-dimensional light structure across a canopy disturbance severity gradient to see if light intensity varied with increasing tornado damage.Results indicate that increased canopy disturbance closer to the tornado track increased light penetration and light structure heterogeneity at lower forest strata.Increased light intensity correlated with increased sapling density that was more randomly distributed across the plot and had shifted light capture higher in the stand structure.Light penetration through the overstory was most strongly correlated with decreased stem density in the two most important tree species(based on relative dominance and relative density)in the stand,Quercus alba L.(r=-0.31)and Ostrya virginiana(Mill.)K.Koch(r=-0.27,p<.01),and indicated that understory light penetration was most affected by these two species.As managers are increasingly interested in patterning silvicultural entries on natural disturbances,they must understand residual stand and light structures that occur after natural disturbance events.By providing spatial light data that quantifies light structure post-disturbance,managers can use these results to improve planning required for long-term management.The study also provides comparisons with anthropogenic disturbances to the midstory that may offer useful comparisons to natural analogs for future silvicultural consideration.     

Effects of stand structure on wind speed reduction in a Metasequoia glyptostroboides shelterbelt

In a Metasequoia glyptostroboides coastal forest shelterbelt near Shanghai, China, we studied relationships between stand structure and wind shelter effect. We located 16 plots at intervals of 500 m along the shelterbelt and characterized both horizontal and vertical structure of each plot. Wind speed was measured within each plot and at different distances windward and leeward. We found that wind shelter effects were closely related to stand structure of the studied M. glyptostroboides shelterbelt. Stands with high basal area but intermediate crown index and intermediate proportion of large trees (LT) produced the best shelter effects, with significantly longer shelter distance (d70, shelter distance which the wind speed U does not exceed 70 % of U ₀) and slightly lower minimum relative wind speed (U _m /U ₀). Simple structural indices that can be easily measured in the field were good predictors of the shelter effect. LT was the best predictor of d70, while basal area at ground level was the best predictor of U _m/U ₀. The relationships between stand structure and shelter effect provides a practical guideline to the design, construction and management of forest shelterbelts. In order to provide the best shelter effects, high basal area of >50 m² ha^?1 at ground level or >33 m² ha^?1 at breast height coupled with an intermediate LT value of about 60 % should be maintained for the studied M. glyptostroboides shelterbelt.     

Crown plasticity in mixed forests—Quantifying asymmetry as a measure of competition using terrestrial laser scanning

Interspecific competition is a key process determining the dynamics of mixed forest stands and influencing the yield of multispecies tree plantations. Trees can respond to competitive pressure from neighbors by crown plasticity, thereby avoiding competition. We employed a high-resolution ground-based laser scanner to analyze the 3-dimensional extensions and shape of the tree crowns in a near-natural broad-leaved mixed forest in order to quantify the direction and degree of crown asymmetry of 15 trees (Fagus sylvatica, Fraxinus excelsior, Carpinus betulus) in detail. We also scanned the direct neighbors and analyzed the distance of their crown centres and the crown shape with the aim to predict the crown asymmetry of the focal tree from competition-relevant attributes of its neighbors. It was found that the combination of two parameters, one summarizing the size of the neighbor (DBH) and one describing the distance to the neighbor tree (HD), was most suitable for characterizing the strength of the competitive interaction exerted on a target tree by a given neighbor. By summing up the virtual competitive pressure of all neighbors in a single competitive pressure vector, we were able to predict the direction of crown asymmetry of the focal tree with an accuracy of 96° on the full circle (360°).The competitive pressure model was equally applicable to beech, ash and hornbeam trees and may generate valuable insight into competitive interactions among tree crowns in mixed stands, provided that sufficiently precise data on the shape and position of the tree crowns is available. Multiple-aspect laser-scanning proved to be an accurate and practicable approach for analyzing the complex 3-dimensional shape of the tree crowns, needed to quantify the plasticity of growth processes in the canopy. We conclude that the laser-based analysis of crown plasticity offers the opportunity to achieve a better understanding of the dynamics of canopy space exploration and also may produce valuable advice for the silvicultural management of mixed stands.