亚洲和非洲社区林业的最新进展

一、社区林业发展史回顾 虽然自古以来乡村社区就经营着森林，但社区林业的出现却是近年来的事情。本文中的社区林业是指特定的社区森林使用者通过与政府的某种合作形式来保护和经营国有林的过程。在过去的30年间，促进社区对森林经营的参与几乎已成为制定国际热带林业政策的共     

台湾把社区林业作为实现森林生态系统管理的重要途径

台湾把推动社区林业作为实施“森林生态系管理”的主要内容之一，其目的是鼓励当地居民参与，培养当地社区的自主能力，让社区民众分扭森林管理责任和分享效益，并与社区组织及民众形成互信、尊重、和谐的伙伴关系，     

中美国有林森林经营计划制定比较研究

美国是世界上林业较发达国家之一，国有林经营有着悠久的历史。文中对比分析了中美国有林森林经营计划的发展历程、法律基础、制定过程以及森林计划内容。针对我国国有林森林计划中的不足，提出:1）加强国有林森林经营计划制定中的公众参与；2）细化国有林管理，重视可获取的最佳科学信息；3）加强计划评估、制定、监测的适应性管理；4）以可持续经营为核心制定国有林森林经营计划；5）转换立法思路，完善国有林相关法律法规。     

参与式林业——参与式发展在森林管理中的实践

介绍了参与式林业的基本内容和执行参与式林业项目的基本过程。参与式林业的关键是实现群众参与,需要分析森林与社区和群众生产及生活的联系,重视社区和群众在森林管理中的作用。我国参与式林业的实践历史悠久而富有成效,我国林业的可持续发展不能离开乡村群众的参与。为了实现森林的可持续经营,需要把森林的社区管理和森林的国家管理有机结合起来。合适的参与式途径、合理的利益分配机制和正确的林地林木权属关系是引导当地群众参与林业活动的基本要素     

关于推行林业流域性区划改革的问题

1 前言为了完成日本关于森林、林业及林产业方面的各项的体制建设。重新制定了森林流域管理系统的方案。这个方案是在促进森林经营、林业生产等的基础上,其基本单位是在合理的范围内,把以河流为中心的经济圈划分为“流域”,目标是提高森林经营水平,形成从河流上游到下游的木材生产、销售和加工一条龙的国有木材生产基地,包括私有林、国有林在内,在森林、林业和林产业相关者的统一体之下,综合进行适合各地流域特点的森林经营、林业生产、加工和销售。为此进行以森林计划体系的重新编制、森林经营事业诸制度的设立、城乡计划的扩弃和促进河流的下游间森林经营协议的鉴定等为内容的森林法的修改。森林计划体系,具体来说是为了继续强化包括私有林和国有林在内的河流上下游间合作的流域管理。策划制定以大范围内的区域流域为单位区域的全国森林计划。此外,在地区性森林计划方面,以森林经营为目的,划分出适当的流域性计划区     

社区林业在国有牛达林场的实践

社区林业自20世纪80年代初引入云南省以来，已经在全省的许多地区开展了探索性的实践，并已产生了不同类型的社区林业模式。国有牛达林场几年来的社区林业实践就是其中的一种，该林场采用社区共管的方式，与其比邻的周边农村社区携手共同保护和管理国有森林，经过双方几年的努力，使林区的森林郁郁葱葱，山区农民的生活水平日益改善，取得了双羸的良好效果。 一、社区林业在牛达林场的主要实践形式 1．多样化的森林经营形式使林场与农民共同受益 牛达林场将森林分成几种类型，根据社区林业的参与式理论和方法，采用了社区共管的方式，本…     

云南村级森林持续经营研讨会在云南省丽江召开

云南是一个森林资源比较丰富的省区,如何经营好森林,特别是经营好占全省70％的集体林,实现林业的可持续发展,已成为全社会关注的热点。为了探索森林的保护和开发利用,以及森林经营管理与持续发展有机结合的途径和方法,云南省林业厅项目办和云南社区发展研究中心自2001年3月开始共同组织实施了云南村级森林持续经营项目,在福特基金会和泰国亚太地区社区林业培训中心的支持及指导下,项目开发出了云南村级森林持续经营的原则、     

玻利维亚社区的森林经营认证--机遇和局限性

目前，玻利维亚森林认证总面积为 886 977 hm2，其中包括租借地、私有林和社区经营的森林。认证的社区森林的总面积为5.3万hm2，均属于Lonerio社区林业项目所有，其森林管理者是当地社区。认证者是社区代理组织APCOB（即对玻利维亚东部农民和土著人的支持）/CICOL（即玻利维亚东部公共中心）。 玻利维亚社区管理的森林面积为 258 821 hm2。为通过森林管理委员会（FSC）的认证，社区按FSC的要求制定了这片林地的森林经营计划，并按其计划进行了森林管理。FSC的主要要求之一是需要认证的经营单位必须按照FSC认证的原则和标准…     

政府搭台,多方参与,共建“走出去”平台——“中国企业境外森林可持续经营利用指南”走进莫桑比克

随着中国"走出去"战略的实施,企业在境外开展森林经营利用受到了国际社会的普遍关注。为了确保中国企业在"走出去"的过程中遵纪守法,遵守当地生态环境保护法规标准,国家林业局会同商务部出台了《中国企业境外森林可持续经营利用指南》(以下简称《指南》),规范企业在境外的森林经营利用行为,转变企业经营理念,创新开发模式,把企业的海外发展同当地社区的经济、社会和环境可持续发展有机地结合起来。为此,国家林业局于近期开展了《指南》在莫桑比克试点工作,通过考察和调研,掌握了在莫中资林业企业发展情况的第一手资料,并向企业传递了中国政府积极推动境外森林可持续经营活动的态度和相关政策措施,鼓励境外中资企业本着可持续经营、和谐共赢的理念,继续做大做强,进一步促进中莫林业交流与合作。     

日本的施业案和营林监督

林业发达国家的施业案具有执行国家林业方针政策，落实近远期全国森林计划，对森林经营进行监督的职能。我国要实现森林经营方案这一已经法定的职能，需要寄送各种法规制度，建立森林计划体系和确立森林经理工作在整个林业生产过程中的统治地位。     

Facing the Challenge of Social Forestry in Japan: The Case of Reviving Harmonious Coexistence Between Forest and People in Okayama Prefecture

Social forestry as a development strategy has evolved since the 1970s, especially in the tropics, to address forest degradation and promote local community development amidst the burgeoning population in these areas. As a practice, however, social forestry has been in place since ancient times in many parts of the world, including Japanese forest communities. Forest-people relationships in Japan drastically changed through massive afforestation programs after the energy source change and with the industrialization of the forest sector in 1950s. The majority of the planted forests are underutilized today and forest communities are marginalized due to the decline of forestry operations, depopulation, and changes in people’s values. Some communities address this concern by inviting potential urban migrants who may be interested in settling in rural areas. Using the case of the Nishiawakura Village in Okayama Prefecture, this paper explores the recent challenges confronting social forestry in Japan. It is found that underutilization of forest resources can be a cause of serious environmental degradation and marginalization of forest communities, and that Nishiawakura’s journey to renew forest management in partnership with migrants is a process of revisiting and creating the forest-people relationship. This study advances two related arguments, namely (1) the interaction of the local people and the migrants brings new perspectives to forest management, and (2) in a community facing depopulation and underutilization of forest resources, social forestry can be an effective approach to rediscover traditional forest management in a new form and revitalize forests and local communities.     

Assessing the sustainability in community based forestry: A case from Nepal

Community based forestry is seen as a promising instrument for sustainable forest management (SFM) through the purposeful involvement of local communities. Globally, forest area managed by local communities is on the rise. However, transferring management responsibilities to forest users alone cannot guarantee the sustainability of forest management. A monitoring tool, that allows the local communities to track the progress of forest management towards the goal of sustainability, is essential. A case study, including six forest user groups (FUGs), two from each three community based forestry models—community forestry (CF), buffer zone community forestry (BZCF), and collaborative forest management (CFM) representing three different physiographic regions, was conducted in Nepal. The study explores which community based forest management model (CF, BZCF or CFM) is doing well in terms of sustainable forest management. The study assesses the overall performance of the three models towards SFM using locally developed criteria (four), indicators (26) and verifiers (60). This paper attempts to quantify the sustainability of the models using sustainability index for individual criteria (SIIC), and overall sustainability index (OSI). In addition, rating to the criteria and scoring of the verifiers by the FUGs were done. Among the four criteria, the FUGs ascribed the highest weightage to institutional framework and governance criterion; followed by economic and social benefits, forest management practices, and extent of forest resources. Similarly, the SIIC was found to be the highest for the institutional framework and governance criterion. The average values of OSI for CFM, CF, and BZCF were 0.48, 0.51 and 0.60 respectively; suggesting that buffer zone community forestry is the more sustainable model among the three. The study also suggested that the SIIC and OSI help local communities to quantify the overall progress of their forestry practices towards sustainability. The indices provided a clear picture of forest management practices to indicate the direction where they are heading in terms of sustainability; and informed the users on issues to pay attention to enhance sustainability of their forests.     

The role of NGOs in improving social forestry practice: Do they promote livelihood, sustainability and optimal land use in Bangladesh?

The encroachment rate in forests in Bangladesh is high and increasing — accelerated by rural poverty and the demand for dwelling space and forest products — causing environmental degradation as well as loss of forest cover and productivity. The forests are managed by the Forest Department, although a substantial area of marginal land belongs to other semi-public agencies including Roads and Highways and the Water Development Board. This marginal land has been left unused or underutilized. In contrast, nongovernmental organizations have an appropriate accessibility and technology disseminating ability to utilize this land in reducing poverty and enhancing rural livelihood, and have been highly active and successful in rehabilitating encroached forests. NGOs have added a new dimension to forest management, which has ensured community participation and protection of the forests, both planted and natural. This study evaluates the social forestry activities of four large NGOs, namely BRAC, Proshika, Caritas and CARE-Bangladesh, as well as national social forestry activities. By adopting a common partnership between public and private authority, property right conflicts have been resolved and rural livelihoods enhanced, and scope has been created for utilizing marginal land. The NGO partnership has been effective in reducing poverty and improving livelihoods. As an outcome of this common partnership, 33,472 km of roadside planting and 53,430 ha of reforestation activities have been carried out during the last two decades.     

The impact of forest resource decline: Analyzing forest-related income supplements to reduce income inequality and poverty of the Kouy indigenous people living in Kampong Thom province,Cambodia

The study examines the effects of declining forest resources on income inequality and poverty among indigenous people and the impact of forest-related income supplements. We conducted surveys and used the Gini index to compute the contribution of income earned from (1) agriculture, (2) forest-related resources, and (3) self-employment and wages, and to assess the income inequality of households in the study sites. The Gini index of the total income from three clusters of income generating activities was 0.45. Cluster 1: agricultural production was the largest source of income (Gini = 0.30). The share of income from Cluster 2 (Gini index = 0.49), from community forestry and sustainable resource management, including hunting, NTFP collection, selling low quality timber, and plantation farming, contributed an important supplement to reduce income inequality and poverty. Income from Cluster 3 (Gini = 0.93) was highly unequal across the study sites. The indigenous poor remain dependent on forest products for daily food consumption and for additional income. The study suggests that policy makers should urgently consider supporting community forestry and community protected areas by integrating them with payment for ecosystem services. This would help to halt deforestation, promote the welfare of indigenous people, and reduce income inequality in rural communities.     

Evolution and Diversification of Community Forestry Regimes in Babati District, Tanzania

Since the 1980s many tropical countries have promoted community forestry (CF). Gradually, various forms of community forest management regimes were developed in response to decentralization processes in the forest administration or the government administration. The emergence of community forestry regime (CFR) complexes and their evolutionary pathways have still been little explored. In Tanzania, Babati District is a pioneer in the development of CF. This paper assesses how emergence of a CFR complex is related to dynamic institutional interactions at local community level and bureaucratic level. It is demonstrated that evolution and diversity of CF regimes is associated with (a) a partial bureaucratic deconcentration of the government’s administrative authority over forests from national level to district level, and (b) democratic decentralization in the form of a partial devolution of formal management authority over forests from governmental authorities to local communities and individual people. Also, it is shown that endogenous changes in the norms and principles of the traditional systems of indigenous forest management occurred, calling for formulation of policy objectives that help to sustain local management practices.     

Can community forestry contribute to household income and sustainable forestry practices in rural area? A case study from Tshapey and Zariphensum in Bhutan

Community forestry is an emerging success model of state–community partnership for forest management and poverty reduction. Bhutan's initial experience of forest management by user group is promising, but merits further study on how community forests have experienced with harvesting and income generation consistent with national forest policy. This study quantifies whether community forestry contribute to household income with equitable products and income distribution and gender inclusive participation; and community forests are managed applying the principles of sustainable harvest without compromising regeneration and productivity. We applied a combination of social and ecological methods using household interview and forest sampling plots. Our findings revealed that community forestry contributes to household income through harvesting and marketing of large trees, and non-wood forest products where markets are accessible. Household income, however, vary widely between rich and poor households with former capitalizing on commercial and latter on subsistence products. Timber harvesting is consistent with the principles of sustainable harvest without altering species composition, regeneration and productivity. To narrow income inequality, pro-poor approach to community forestry needs to target poor households with income diversification activities and market accessibility. The promising results are context-driven and warrant consolidation from other community forests experiencing harvest in Bhutan.     

Socio-economic and ecological outcomes of community based forest management: A case study from Tobé-Kpobidon forest in Benin,Western Africa

Community forestry, promoted as a “win–win” forest management strategy yielded a variety of results that includes both failure and relative success. The willingness of government to hold control over forest resources while transferring only part of property rights to local communities is one of the major constraints. Therefore, there is a need to explore alternative approaches, which enhance the position and accountability of local communities in community forest management. This study evaluated socio-economic and ecological outcomes of community forestry in a context of important property rights conceded to local communities. The study was conducted using focus groups discussions, forest income evaluation and assessment of forest resources and their dynamics. Findings showed that institutional design with important property rights conceded to local communities partially empowered local communities and reduced threats while improving the condition of forest resources. The approach also yielded positive economic outcomes that enabled bordering populations to make up to 25% of their global annual income from the forest. However, the sustainability of this scheme of forest management was mostly limited by the financial dependency on local non-governmental organization, by local institutions and discrepancy in forest benefits sharing among local forest users.     

Village Common Forest Management in Komolchori,Chittagong Hill Tracts,Bangladesh: An Example of Community Based Natural Resources Management

Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHTs) in Bangladesh covers about 50% of the country’s natural forest resources, providing sources of food, fuel-wood, medicinal plants, timber and water supply to the ethnic communities living in the area. The ethnic communities in CHTs have been managing a small patch of forest known as a village common forest (VCF) adjacent to their village following a community based forest management approach. Taking a case study of Komolchori VCF, this study examined dependency of community people on VCF resources, their conservation-related attitudes and awareness, indigenous management, and forest phyto-sociological structure. A survey and focus group discussions were conducted among the settlers and non-settlers in Thana Chandra para and Jaduram para villages of the Komolchori VCF. Key informant interviews were conducted with two non-government organizations (NGOs) and the headman in the study area. To assess phyto-sociological structure of vegetation, 25 quadrats (10 m?×?10 m) were laid out randomly. Results revealed that non-settlers were more inclined towards VCF conservation and women played a crucial role as they were directly involved in forest products and water collection. Soil erosion caused by shifting cultivation has made community people more aware of forest degradation. Training program provided by NGOs on different horticultural techniques and a “Saving-Credit program” improved livelihood conditions and reduced pressures on VCF resources. Locally devised traditional rules guide the community people to manage the VCF sustainably. The vegetation survey showed that the density of Komolchori VCF was 1420 trees/ha with a basal area of 27.98 m²/ha. The Shannon–Weiner index, species diversity index and index of dominance in the study area were 2.91, 0.62, 0.09, respectively.     

Non-Governmental Organizations, Rural Communities and Forests: A Comparative Analysis of Community-NGO Interactions

Scholars, policy-makers and advocates have, in the last decade, recommended greater involvement by non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in community forest management in developing countries. Behind these recommendations lies a notion that NGOs are a sound complement to formal governments and that NGOs can improve communities’ abilities to manage their own forests. There is limited empirical work, however, testing how NGO activity affects local forest governance and deforestation. This paper reports the results of quantitative statistical tests on the effects of local NGO importance—as measured by local forest users’ reports of NGO importance—on deforestation in a sample of 200 rural Bolivian communities. In addition, it examines the effect of NGO importance on community forestry institutions—specifically, the presence of institutions for rule-making, forest monitoring, sanctioning, and enforcement of rules. Contrary to earlier research, these results suggest that NGOs have no discernible effect on community forestry institutions, though other external actors—most notably, municipal governments—seem to have a positive effect. The paper also reports a negative correlation of NGO importance on deforestation. Although these quantitative results are in part supported by qualitative field observations in selected Bolivian communities, care is needed in drawing generalized causal inferences from this evidence.     

Community-based forestry and timber certification in Southeast Bolivia

Initiatives promoting community forestry in South America have significantly increased over the past decade. Many of these efforts have concentrated on indigenous lands where a large proportion of commercially valuable forests are located. One such project, among the Chiquitano Indians of Lomerio in southeast Bolivia, is examined here. Interviews with Chiquitano leaders, NGO and development organisation workers, and forest and sawmill workers, as well as ethnographic research in Chiquitano communities, are used to describe problems faced by the project in establishing forest management activities, organizing labour, administration, paying wages and distributing benefits. The author argues that many of the problems that the Lomerio project is experiencing can be traced to fundamental conflicts between Chiquitano culture and the values that necessarily accompany market-based development efforts such as community forestry. The research suggests that the key to success in Lomerio will lie in moulding the organisation of the project in ways that reflect Chiquitano patterns of work and production, and reconciling the demands of market economics with the values of reciprocation that permeate life in Chiquitano communities.