The lichens of the Scottish native pinewoods

During the last 30 years, 434 epiphytic lichen taxa have beenrecorded from the native pinewoods of Scotland. Of these lichens,about 219 have been recorded from the bark, lignum or stumpsof pine (Pinus sylvestris) itself. Eighteen species are, inthe British Isles, confined to these native pinewoods, whichare themselves confined to the Scottish Highlands. A resumeis presented of the habitats and niches available to lichensin the native pinewoods, using examples of the most characteristicspecies for each. The ‘pinewood habitat’ for epiphyticlichens is by no means restricted to pine, but also includesassociated trees, shrubs and subshrubs, especially birch, rowan,holly, aspen, juniper and heather. The strong east–westvariation in the composition of the lichen flora is outlined.By comparison of species lists from pinewood stands of knownancientness with those from mature plantations distant fromthe ‘core’ pinewoods, an additional c. 60 speciescan be considered as indicative of an ecological continuityof the pinewood habitat. From this pool of c. 77 species, aNative Pinewood Index of Ecological Continuity is presentedas a useful tool for biodiversity assessments of pinewoods.     

Native pinewoods in Scotland: perspectives on policy and management

Achievements in pinewood management over recent decades arereviewed, focusing particularly on attainment of UK BiodiversityAction Plan targets and the delivery of Scottish Forestry Strategyand Scottish Biodiversity Strategy objectives. Future challengesfor the management of native pinewoods are outlined which includethe need for effective landscape-scale planning, deer management,habitat restoration and enhancement and monitoring. The contributionthat pinewoods can make to rural development and economic prosperityis also highlighted and discussed.     

Study on Tending Operations to Control over Harm of Pine Scale in Urban Park

The change of pine scale (Hemiberlesia pitysophila Takagi) population density on pine forest in urban park between treatment (tending operations) and CK (no tending operations) was researched in this paper. The results were shown as follows: population density declined to 0.63 head per bundle from 2.61 heads per bundle when crown density of pine in urban park had become 0.5 or so by means of cultivation activities such as felling, pruning and thinning and so on, and drop got to 75.86 percent. The pinewoods would soon get revived once using these cultivation activities, so tending operations was main measures controlling over harm of pine scale in urban park; At the same time, population density of pine scale on pinewoods in the sunny slope was more than that in the somber slope and it had become less and less from sunny slope to somber slope. Therefore, tree species must be chosen in the planning and design of urban park for preventing harm and happening of pine scale.     

Reconstructing forest history from archaeological data: A case study in the Duero basin assessing the origin of controversial forests and the loss of tree populations of great biogeographical interest

The study of more than 700 charcoals from the Vaccaean settlement of Pintia (Padilla del Duero, Valladolid) provides new local and detailed data about the Iron Age II forest composition in Continental-Mediterranean inland Spain. Pinus gr. sylvestris/nigra (from which an unexpectedly high number of charcoals were identified), together with Mediterranean pines (also highly represented), Juniperus L. and evergreen and deciduous Quercus, were the main taxa living in the area, revealing two different marked biogeographical elements in the late-Holocene landscapes of the Duero basin: Mediterranean and Eurosiberian. On one hand, the results shed new light on the assessment of the origin of Mediterranean pinewoods in the area. On the other hand, the charcoal assemblage of Pintia reveals a more important presence of the current Mediterranean highland pines in the lowlands of the Central Iberian Peninsula in the late-Holocene suggesting the existence of interglacial refugia. Finally, this work highlights palaeoecological studies as valuable tools to support decisions on forest management related to conservation and restoration of our natural heritage.     

Long-term woodland dynamics in West Glen Affric, northern Scotland

The former woodlands west of Loch Affric are described frompollen analyses. Related records of climate change from theanalysis of lake-level change and peat growth are also presentedto explore the importance of climate in driving woodland change.The woodlands were more diverse than extant pinewoods to theeast, with a very considerable deciduous component. They developedin the early Holocene period, and brief periods of range expansionand contraction are recorded within a pattern of overall woodlandstability over thousands of years, despite the high frequencyand intensity of climatic excursions, until a final collapsein all woodland communities occurred at around 4000 calibratedyears ago (BP). This collapse had a climatic origin, but theprecise character of the climate change is ill-defined.     

Fire protection of a laminated veneer lumber joint by wood carbon phenolic spheres sheeting

Laminated veneer lumber joints made with metal plate connectors were protected with wood carbon phenolic spheres (CPS) sheeting and tested for creep under fire. The effects of the carbonizing temperature of charcoal, used as raw material for the CPS sheets, the thickness, and the location of the sheet on the joint regarding the fire-resistance performance of the joint were studied. The time to rupture of the joints covered with CPS sheets made from charcoal carbonized at 800°C (CPS800) was slightly prolonged compared with that of uncovered joints. On the other hand, the time to rupture of CPS sheets made from charcoal carbonized at 1600°C (CPS1600) was markedly extended. The changes in the charcoal properties due to increasing the carbonizing temperature might be the main reason the CPS1600 sheets had higher fire-resistance performance. The thickness and location of CPS1600 sheets have significant effects on the fire resistance of the joint. A highly fire-resistant laminated veneer lumber joint was obtained using a CPS1600 sheet. The CPS1600 sheet with a thickness of 3mm covering three sides of the joint prolonged the time to rupture 16-fold compared with that of unprotected joints.Part of this paper was presented at the 4th International Wood Science Symposium, Serpong, Indonesia, September 2002     

Collisions against Fences by Woodland Grouse in Scotland

A study was carried out in native pinewoods at Abernethy andGlen Tanar to investigate the effect of forest fences on capercaillieand black grouse. Collisions occurred at a rate of 0.25 and0.03 per km of fence per month for capercaillie and black grouserespectively. Male capercaillie had a higher proportion of severeand fatal collisions than females. Capercaillie tended to collidewith those sections of fence where there were moderately sizedpines (8.5 m) close (within 4.4 m) to the fence. Collision sitesclose to trees were most strongly associated with the heightof exposed trunk, suggesting that capercaillie fly under thecanopy and fail to see the fence. The annual mortality rateof radio-tagged capercaillie caused by collisions was 32 percent indicating that this was a major mortality factor. Collisionswere most frequent between September and November when capercailliewere dispersing. It is recommended that fences are removed whereand when they are unnecessary, or are made more visible, orare set back from old woodland.     

营林措施控制城市公园松突圆蚧危害

通过对发生区内松林进行间伐、修枝等营林措施将松林的郁闭度调整至0.5左右。试区试验结果松突圆蚧的虫口密度从采用营林措施前的2.61头/束下降至0.63头/束,虫口密度下降75.86%,在城市公园规划设计上还应考虑位于不同的坡向营造不同的树种,以防止松突圆蚧的发生和危害。       

Stand structure and dynamics of four native Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) woodlands in northern Scotland

Stands in four native pinewoods (Glenmore, Black Wood of Rannoch,Glen Garry and Glen Affric) dominated by Scots pine (Pinus sylvestrisL.) with contrasting management histories and climates wereassessed for differences in age, structure and dynamics. Treeage, height, diameter at breast height (d.b.h.), basal area,stem density and x, y coordinates were used to compare the recruitmentof trees (>1.3 m height, >7 cm d.b.h.), saplings (>1.3m height, <7 cm d.b.h.) and seedlings (<1.3 m) followingdisturbance events and protection from browsing. There was a20-year lag between localized intensive cultivation and treerecruitment on sites that were protected from deer browsing(Glenmore and Glen Garry). Recruitment was low in sites withdisturbance but no protection (Black Wood of Rannoch). The oldestpopulation, Glen Affric, showed signs of initial intense recruitmentfollowed by a long period of nil recruitment. Abundant standingdead trees were recorded only in Glen Affric, and prolific birchand rowan only in Glen Garry. Managers should consider localizedintense cultivation in conjunction with a complete reductionin browsing pressure for rapid seedling recruitment and increasedstructural diversity.     

Photosynthetic characteristics of Fagus sylvatica and Quercus robur established for stand conversion from Picea abies

Efforts in Europe to convert Norway spruce (Picea abies) plantations to broadleaf or mixed broadleaf-conifer forests could be bolstered by an increased understanding of how artificial regeneration acclimates and functions under a range of Norway spruce stand conditions. We studied foliage characteristics and leaf-level photosynthesis on 7-year-old European beech (Fagus sylvatica) and pedunculate oak (Quercus robur) regeneration established in open patches and shelterwoods of a partially harvested Norway spruce plantation in southwestern Sweden. Both species exhibited morphological plasticity at the leaf level by developing leaf blades in patches with an average mass per unit area (LMA) 54% greater than of those in shelterwoods, and at the plant level by maintaining a leaf area ratio (LAR) in shelterwoods that was 78% greater than in patches. However, we observed interspecific differences in photosynthetic capacity relative to spruce canopy openness. Photosynthetic capacity (A₁₆₀₀, net photosynthesis at a photosynthetic photon flux density of 1600 μmol photons m⁻² s⁻¹) of beech in respect to the canopy gradient was best related to leaf mass, and declined substantially with increasing canopy openness primarily because leaf nitrogen (N) in this species decreased about 0.9 mg g⁻¹ with each 10% rise in canopy openness. In contrast, A₁₆₀₀ of oak showed a weak response to mass-based N, and furthermore the percentage of N remained constant in oak leaf tissues across the canopy gradient. Therefore, oak photosynthetic capacity along the canopy gradient was best related to leaf area, and increased as the spruce canopy thinned primarily because LMA rose 8.6 g m⁻² for each 10% increase in canopy openness. These findings support the premise that spruce stand structure regulates photosynthetic capacity of beech through processes that determine N status of this species; leaf N (mass basis) was greatest under relatively closed spruce canopies where leaves apparently acclimate by enhancing light harvesting mechanisms. Spruce stand structure regulates photosynthetic capacity of oak through processes that control LMA; LMA was greatest under open spruce canopies of high light availability where leaves apparently acclimate by enhancing CO₂ fixation mechanisms.     

关帝山次生林区典型植物群落物种多样性垂直分布研究

为了分析和探讨海拔对植物多样性的影响,沿海拔梯度(1600–2600m),设定14个样地,对每个样地内对植物物种进行调查。结果表明:随海拔升高,群落优势种变化依次为:辽东栎、油松、白桦、红桦、华北落叶松和云杉。群落内乔木树种的平均树高和胸径表现为先增大后减小,最大树高和胸径表现为单峰变化。群落内不同生活型树种(针叶树和阔叶树)的最大树高表现为先增大后减小.阔叶树最大胸径无明显变化规律,针叶树最大胸径不断减小。中海拔群落内,针叶树种的最大树高和胸径高于阔叶树种。群落的Shannon-wiener指数和Margalef指数均表现为单峰变化,中海拔群落(1900–2200m)植物多样性最高,高于低海拔群落(1600–1900m)和高海拔群落(2200–2600m)。Shannon-wiener指数和Margalef指数反映出的植物α多样性变化与海拔高度显著相关。在研究地区,植物多样性变化与群落所处的海拔显著相关,此外,还与群落结构、物种组成、树种特性和人为干扰有关。图8表3参13。     

Species selection for reforestations: what happens with historic local extinctions and habitat protection zones? A case study in the Cantabrian Range

Species selection for reforestations can be challenging in habitat protection zones, especially in human transformed landscapes, where nativeness of some species is not easily determined and yet is crucial for knowing whether a species can be used or not. We try to determine whether Pinus uncinata Ramond ex DC was present in the Cantabrian Range (Spain) and whether it could have disappeared recently due to anthropogenic causes. Plant morphology and needle anatomy were characterized in Pinus sylvestris L. and P. uncinata 2-year-old seedlings. An analysis of variance was used for selecting morphological markers capable of discriminating both species. These markers permit the comparison of seedlings coming from the highest zone of Puebla de Lillo relict pinewood (Cantabrian Range) with reference material from Castillo de Vinuesa (Iberian Range). This comparison was firstly made with two multivariate methods, a principal component analysis and a multivariate discriminant analysis. Subsequently, this was corroborated with the detection of a species-specific chloroplast DNA marker. The differences found between both species reflect the better adaptation of P. uncinata to typical highland environment. Several Puebla de Lillo seedlings had P. uncinata type morphology and haplotype, suggesting the presence of this species in the Cantabrian Range until recently. This discovery changes the current interpretation of the zone’s vegetation, enhancing the natural presence of highland open pinewoods. However, human activities (fire and livestock grazing) have driven them to extinction and have favoured the contemporary expansion of heathlands. Based on this P. uncinata case, we discuss how local extinctions can affect management and conservation policies negatively.     

Induction of hairy and normal roots on Picea abies,Pinus sylvestris and Pinus cortorta by agrobacterium rhizogenes

Two‐ to three‐week‐old seedlings of Picea abies, Pinus sylvestris and Pinus contorta were inoculated with the supervirulent strain Agrobacterium rhizogenes R1600 2cm above the base of the hypocotyl; other treatments included inoculation with Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain A281 (pTVK291) or mock inoculation. Hairy or highly branched roots formed on 2–3% of seedlings of all 3 species that were infected by R1600 but on none of the other seedlings. Normal adventitious roots were also induced on 5–10% of Agrobacterium‐treated seedlings but none appeared on the other seedlings. Opine assays and growth rates of hairy and normal roots indicated that only roots with the hairy morphology were transformed.     

基肥对依兰香造林成活率及幼林期生长影响

依兰香(Cananga odorata)也称为依兰依兰,是一种热带珍贵木本香料树种,枝繁叶茂、花形雅致、香气独特浓郁,具有重要的生态景观及药用价值。它原产东南亚的印度尼西亚和菲律宾等地,现热带地区具有广泛分布。采用单因素随机区组设计,对比了不同基肥对依兰香造林成活率及树高胸径生长的影响。结果表明:施用基肥可以适当提高依兰香造林成活率,其中以处理2(每株施1600g乐岛有机肥)效果最好,造林成活率达94.81%,显著高于对照。施用不同的基肥,对依兰香的生长均有不同程度的促进。各处理间对依兰香树高、胸径影响大小的顺序均为处理2(1600g乐岛有机肥)处理1(800g乐岛有机肥)处理4(250g钙镁磷肥)处理3(125g钙镁磷肥)处理5(空白对照)。     

Ecology, history and silviculture of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) in western Norway - a literature review

Results from a literature review on pinewood ecology, silviculture,genetics, aspects of history and forest resources of Scots pine(Pinus sylvestris L.) in western Norway are presented. The pinewoodscover 40 per cent of the forested land, 0.31 million ha. Duringthe last 75 years, the area has increased by 17 per cent andthe growing stock has risen from 10 to 34 million m³. The impactof man in previous times was very marked, and has had a significantinfluence on the present forest conditions. The pronounced climaticgradients mixed with the topographic variation – fromthe coastal plains via the fjord systems to the high mountains– is reflected in rather steep gradients in the pine forestvegetation. Various floristic elements can be distinguished,from oceanic via the suboceanic in the outer islands to thethermophytic, boreonemoral and boreal elements in the innerfjord districts and valleys. The introduction of spruce (Piceaspp.) plantations on 10–15 per cent of former native pineforests has not negatively affected the bird fauna at the landscapescale. Although not particular species rich, the pine forestsharbour species usually not found in other forest types. Sofar, most work in the field of silviculture and forest ecologyin the pinewoods of West Norway has been in the form of casestudies. Implications of the results for forestry in the regionare briefly discussed.     

Pooling of CO2 within a small valley in a tropical seasonal rain forest

CO₂ concentrations and related environmental factors were measured in an Asian tropical rainforest located in a small valley in Xishuangbanna, SW China, with the aim of investigating the CO₂ pooling effect and its mechanism of formation. Pooling of CO₂ was observed during the evening (1600?C2200?hours local time); the accumulated CO₂ subsequently flowed away after dusk. We consider that along-slope drainage flow, soil CO₂ efflux, and temperature inversion contribute to the development of CO₂ pooling. A new model is proposed to track the mechanism of the formation and dissipation of CO₂ pooling (e.g., drainage flow, compensatory mechanisms). Given its influence on the storage term, we suggest that CO₂ pooling and subsequent disappearance should be taken into account when calculating eddy covariance and other micrometeorological measurements of carbon flux for valley sites.     

湘江流域生态足迹计算与可持续发展能力评价

根据湖南省2012年的相关统计数据,应用生态足迹理论和方法,定量评价了湘江流域2011年的生态足迹和生态承载力。结果表明：2011年湘江流域人均生态足迹为2．1600hm^2,人均生态承载力为0．4391hm^2,人均生态赤字达1．7209hm^2,生态足迹的需求是生态承裁力的4．9倍,区域内生态资源的供需矛盾较为突出,生态协调系数DS=1．179〈1．414,协调状态较差,经济社会发展呈现不可持续状态。     

Timing and intensity of precommercial thinning in Pinus sylvestris stands

The effects of timing and intensity of precommercial thinning were studied in three Scots pine artificially regenerated stands on Vaccinium forest sites in southern Finland. A two-level factorial design (3×3) was used in each stand: thinning at dominant height of 3, 6 and 9 m to 1000, 1600 and 2200 stems ha^?1. The effects of the treatments were analysed after a period of 23–25 yrs when the dominant height was 14–15 m. Early thinning resulted in the highest standing volume and amount of merchantable wood, and also in slightly accelerated height development. Thinning to 1000 stems ha^?1 caused a considerable production loss, but there were no differences between the densities of 1600 and 2200 stems ha^?1. Branches became thicker after early thinning, but the differences between the treatments were negligible for crop trees. Crown ratio was lowest as the result of early or moderate thinning (2200 stems ha^?1).     

Leaf macro- and micro-morphological altitudinal variability of Carpinus betulus in the Hyrcanian forest (Iran)

We investigated the altitudinal variation of Carpinus betulus L. in the Hyrcanian forest using leaf macro-morphological and micro-morphological traits. We collected a total of 1600 leaves from two locations. In each location, we sampled six populations along an altitudinal gradient ranging from 100 m to 1,150 m. We found that trees in the higher elevations have smaller leaf lamina than those in the lower elevations. In contrast, leaf mass per area was high at low altitudes and increased newly at the higher ones. Stomatal dimension was negatively correlated with elevation, while stomatal density was positively correlated with elevation. We also found that two transects showed the same plasticity trend. Leaf area showed the highest plasticity, while the number of veins showed the lowest plasticity. This study shows that altitude, and related temperature and rainfall, represents an important driving force in Carpinus betulus leaf morphological variation. Moreover, our results suggest that leaf area, leaf mass per area and stomatal density could influence the species responses to different ecological conditions.     

Anthelmintic activity of crude aqueous extract of Nauclea latifolia stem bark against ovine nematodes

The anthelmintic efficacy of Nauclea latifolia stem bark aqueous extract was studied in sheep with natural acute/sub-acute parasitic gastro-enteritis due primarily to mixed nematode species. Graded doses of the extract (400, 800 and 1600 mg/kg, p.o for 5 consecutive days) significantly reduced faecal egg counts in infected animals. The percentage reduction (93.8%) by 1600 mg/kg of the extract was comparable to that of 5 mg/kg of albendazole (94.1%). The administration of the extract resulted in improved haemoglobin and leucocytosis values in worm-infected sheep.