北美规格材目测分等概述

目测分等方法是北美一种很重要的锯材分等体系, 即依据目测分等规则通过肉眼观测方式测定木材的缺陷状况进而确定规格材的材质等级。因此, 对木材缺陷与材质等级之间关系的正确把握以及对分等规则的正确应用, 是对规格材进行科学、正确分等的基本要求。合理地依据目测分等规则划分规格材等级, 不仅可以使规格材生产厂家的经济效益最大化, 而且有利于规格材产品使用性能的充分、合理发挥。经过目测分等的规格材具有客观的力学性质以及外观质量等级, 可以为其作为结构用材使用时提供科学的依据。直到今天, 目测分等方法依然是北美进行规格材分等的主要分等方法和基础。文中介绍了北美目测分等方法的发展、原理、意义以及世界上其他一些国家和地区的目测分等标准, 并对中国目测分等标准与北美目测分等规则进行了比较, 希望对完善我国的目测分等规则有所启示。     

北美规格材机械分等综述

规格材的机械分等方法是北美一种很重要的分等体系, 即采用机械应力测定设备对木材进行非破坏性试验, 按测定的木材弯曲强度和弹性模量确定木材的材质等级。用于机械分等规格材的分选参数可以因不同工厂机械的具体情况而进行调整, 较目测分等更能适应现代化木材工业的发展要求。文中从分等方法的诞生、机械分等与目测分等相互关系、机械分等方法和标准、分等机构设置等方面介绍了北美规格材机械分等, 在此基础上分析了中国规格材分等的现状并对中国规格材分等提出了参考建议。     

落叶松规格材机械应力分等方法的研究

对东北人工林落叶松规格材机械分等方法及其特征值进行了研究.结果表明,抗弯弹性模量与抗弯强度相关性较好,纵向振动法可作为落叶松规格材机械分等的有效方法.按照我国GB 50005-2003<木结构设计规范>的规定,落叶松规格材可归类为M14～M35之间的等级;通过机械分等,大大提高了落叶松规格材的强度设计值.     

中国与加拿大规格材目测分等规则的比较

分析我国GB 50005-2003<木结构设计规范>与加拿大规格材目测分等规则NLGA 2002的异同,并根据NLGA对中国杉木人工林规格材进行了目测分级试验.在此基础上,为我国规格材目测分等规则的修订与完善提出建议.     

原木等级及径级对规格材质量及出材率的影响

选用不同径级和质量等级的兴安落叶松原木,采用毛板下锯法和四面下锯法加工规格材,并检测分析了不同等级规格材的出材率。结果表明,原木径级在26～28cm时,规格材出材率较高;原木的等级与径级,及下锯法与原木径级交互因素,对规格材的出材率有显著的影响。要提高规格材出材率,应根据规格材尺寸优化匹配各因素。     

落叶松指接规格材弹性模量的研究

研究指接、锯材等级对兴安落叶松结构用指接材弹性模量的影响,分析不同检测方法评估落叶松指接规格材弹性模量的可靠性。以落叶松锯材为原料,根据纵向基频振动(FFT)测试结果将其分为M_E12、M_E14、M_E16、M_E18四组,制备截面为40 mm×90 mm的规格材和指接规格材;分别利用纵向基频振动(FFT)、横向振动(TV)、机械应力分等级(MSR)测试评估指接材的静态弹性模量。结果表明:落叶松规格材和指接规格材是一种高弹性模量的锯材,其平均弹性模量大于SPF目测二级规格材的弹性模量;分级后,不同等级指接材弹性模量差异显著;指接加工降低中低等级锯材的弹性模量,但不影响高等级锯材的弹性模量;利用MSR测试结果评估指接材的弹性模量效果最佳,但其设备复杂,结合FFT设备的优点,推荐工厂使用FFT在线检测落叶松指接规格材的弹性模量。     

基于不同目测分等规则落叶松锯材的试验研究

采用GB 50005—2003（木结构设计规范》、日本JAS 1152（集成材日本农林标准》和美国ASTMD 245-2006《确立目测分等木材的结构等级及有关允许性能的标准规程》三个目测分等规则,对黑龙江产536根规格为4000mm&#215;110mm&#215;30mm的人工林落叶松锯材进行目测分等。结果表明,中国标准的目测分等结果与美国标准近似,而日本标准对木材材质要求最为严格。     

落叶松锯材外观分等与机械应力分等的试验研究

根据中国、日本、美国三国的外观分等标准,对落叶松试材进行了以强度为基础的外观分等;采用机械应力分等机对落叶松试材进行了应力分等试验,并分析比较了三国不同的外观分等结果与机械应力分等检测的相关关系。     

落叶松结构用胶合木层板指接工艺参数对力学性能的影响

以兴安落叶松刨光锯材制作胶合木指接层板,探讨指榫参数、指接压力和不同规格尺寸对锯材指接层板抗弯性能的影响。结果表明:指榫工艺参数对指接层板抗弯弹性模量影响较小,而对抗弯强度影响较大。当选用12.7、19mm和25mm指榫长度及其相应的指接工艺参数时,层板抗弯强度平均值和5%分位值均能达到国家标准GB/T 26899-2011《结构用集成材》目测分等Ⅰ_d等级和机械分等M_E14等级规定值,对于中小截面胶合木层板,尽可能考虑选用12.7~19mm范围内较小的指榫长度进行指接加工以利节材。在指接过程中应选用合适的指接压力,指接压力过大或过小都会对指接层板抗弯性能尤其强度造成不利影响,指接层板抗弯强度的尺寸效应与非指接锯材相似。     

落叶松锯材外观分等与振动检测试验的研究

根据中国、日本和美国的外观分等标准对落叶松试材进行了以强度为基础的外观分等,并对试材进行了振动检测,分析比较了三国不同外观分等结果与振动检测的相关关系。     

Growth of Phlebiopsis gigantea in wood of seven conifer species

Heterobasidion parviporum and Heterobasidion annosum are widely distributed root‐rot fungi that infect conifers throughout Europe. Infection of conifer stumps by spores of these pathogens can be controlled by treating fresh stumps with a competing non‐pathogenic fungus, Phlebiopsis gigantea. In this study, growth of three Latvian strains of P. gigantea and the biological control agent ‘Rotstop’ strain was evaluated in stem pieces of Norway spruce, Scots pine, lodgepole pine, Douglas‐fir, Weymouth pine, Siberian larch and Sitka spruce. The growth rates of one H. parviporum and one H. annosum isolate were also measured in the same stem pieces. The growth rate of P. gigantea varied greatly in wood of different conifer species. It was higher in the three pine species, lower in Norway spruce and lowest in Sitka spruce and Siberian larch, and in Douglas‐fir, this fungus did not grow. The largest area of wood occupied by P. gigantea was in lodgepole pine. Growth of Latvian isolates of P. gigantea in the wood of Pinus and Picea species was comparable to that of the Rotstop isolate. Consequently, stump treatment with local P. gigantea isolates should be recommended. However, our results suggest that Douglas‐fir stump treatment against Heterobasidion by P. gigantea may be ineffective and other stump treatment methods should be considered.     

Growth of Mixed Birch-Coniferous Stands in Relation to Pure Coniferous Stands at Similar Sites in South-eastern Norway

Mean age, mean and top heights and yield were studied in 20 mixed stands of birch ( Betula pubescens Ehrh. and B. pendula Roth) and Picea abies (L.) Karst. and nine mixed stands of birch and Pinus sylvestris L. in south-eastern Norway. Each mixed stand and the adjacent pure coniferous stand (control) were growing under the same site conditions and had not been commercially thinned. There were no significant differences in mean age at breast height or in top heights between birch and conifers in the mixed stands, while mean height was significantly higher for birch than for spruce. A growth index was calculated based on total volume and age at breast height. For the spruce sites the growth in young mixed stands (birch < 17 m) was superior to that of pure spruce, while the difference was insignificant in older stands. The growth index correlated positively with the ratio between generatively and vegetatively regenerated birch trees, and negatively with the age of the oldest species in the mixture and with site quality. For the pine sites there was no significant difference in the growth index between mixed birch-pine and pure pine stands. A mixture effect of birch on the volume yield of spruce or pine could not be demonstrated.     

Defoliation by the Needle-shortening Pine Gall Midge,Thecodiplosis brachyntera,on Pines in Central Sweden

An outbreak of the needle-shortening pine gall midge, Thecodiplosis brachyntera , occurred on Scots pine, Pinus sylvestris (L.) and lodgepole pine, P. contorta (Dougl.) in central Sweden during 1995-1998. The larval feeding of T. brachyntera kills current-year needles and heavy infestation causes severe defoliation. A pattern of fluctuating defoliation among years and sites was found on both pine species. Defoliation was evenly distributed in the crown of P. sylvestris during years of high as well as low infestation; apical whorls had as much defoliation as basal whorls. In P. contorta , however, there was a tendency for defoliation to be concentrated on branches in the most apical whorls. Growth ring increments on P. sylvestris with high levels of defoliation (71%) did not differ from trees with moderate levels (26%) of defoliation. Shoot lengths were significantly shorter, however, on heavily infested trees the year after defoliation.     

Boron in forest trees and forest ecosystems

This review critically examines the role of boron (B) in forests in view of recent findings on B nutrition and the continuing occurrence of B deficiency. Many perceptions about the role of B in plants and its uptake and mobility have been altered since the last review on B in forest trees in 1990. Now there is evidence for a fundamental role of B in the formation of the pectic structure in primary cell walls in plants, and further roles in membrane function are being explored. In plants, channel-mediated B uptake, active B uptake and B uptake by mycorrhizas have been shown, B transporters have been identified, and B retranslocation has been shown. We explore these findings and their consequences on forest trees and on ecosystems that they dominate. Particular emphasis is placed on B retranslocation and B in mycorrhizal symbiosis, given their importance in trees.     

Development of Pinus sylvestris Main Stems Following Three Different Precommercial Thinning Methods in a Mixed Stand

Reducing competition by point cleaning may be an attractive alternative to conventional precommercial thinning in forestry. In this study, survival and development of main stems of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) following point cleaning were examined in a mixed stand of mainly Scots pine and birch (Betula pendula Roth and Betula pubescens Ehrh.) in northern Sweden. Treatments studied were: no precommercial thinning, conventional precommercial thinning, point cleaning of all secondary stems, and point cleaning of only the secondary stems that were higher than the main stem, within a radius of 0.8 m from the main stem, respectively. A randomised complete block design with three replicates was used. Measurements taken 13 growing seasons after these treatments showed that conventional precommercial thinning was the best treatment for retaining Scots pines as main stems. However, conventional precommercial thinning resulted in the poorest timber quality of the remaining Scots pines in terms of stem taper, thickest branch diameter and relative live crown height. In conclusion, point cleaning has to be followed by a complementary cleaning operation if the objective is to retain Scots pines as main stems in such mixed stands.     

Survival and Growth of Picea abies Regeneration after Shelterwood Removal with Single- and Double-grip Harvester Systems

Three stands in Sweden were followed for 7 yrs to study the survival and growth of Norway spruce [Picea abies (L.) Karst.] regeneration after shelterwood removal with single- and double-grip harvester systems. The height of all seedlings within circular plots was recorded before and after final cutting. The tallest seedling and one randomly selected seedling on each circular plot were permanently marked and their annual height growth was measured each year during the period 1993-1999. No significant differences between single- and double-grip harvester systems were found with respect to their effects on regeneration density, survival or annual height growth. The annual height growth of the individual seedlings after shelterwood removal was significantly correlated with seedling height before shelterwood removal. Significant differences were found in annual height growth between seedlings with high and low vitality. Logging damage did not affect the annual height growth. Several practical conclusions were drawn. First, the choice of harvester system does not affect seedling height growth or survival after shelterwood removal. Secondly, the removal of a 200 m³ shelterwood with 200 stems ha^-1 does not seem to constitute a serious problem for seedling survival and growth. Finally, estimated vitality and seedling height both seem to be fairly good predictors of postrelease survival and growth.     

Tree planting for dryland salinity control in Australia

Dryland salinity is emerging as a major form of land and water degradation in southern Australia, particularly in Western Australia, South Australia and Victoria, and to a lesser extent in New South Wales, Tasmania and Queensland.Tree planting, in combination with other vegetation treatments, is regarded as a leading solution to dryland salinity. Research has now shown that planting trees can significantly lower groundwater tables, and thereby reverse the causal process of salinisation. Substantial progress has been made towards answering the basic questions of which species to grow, how to plant, where to plant, at what density and configuration to plant, and how much area to plant. The economic potential for commercial tree planting has given impetus to partial reforestation in higher rainfall (> 600 mm yr^–1) areas. Even so, serious constraints are apparent, relating primarily to cost, uncertainty and attitude. The future should bring increasing community input and control, technical refinement and gradual adoption, provided all aspects of the issue are well researched, relevant information is well communicated and programmes are well administered. Some specific requirements for future research are identified in this review.     

Effect of Cuttings on the Scenic Beauty of a Tree Stand

The opinions of 207 respondents on the visual effects of seven different cutting types were asked using a nine-point verbal scale ranging from ''worsens very much'' to ''improves very much''. Other estimates were obtained by letting the same respondents evaluate photographs of stands which had been treated with different cuttings. The direct questions gave results quite similar to the evaluations of photographs for all but young respondents, indicating that most respondents were able to imagine the effect of the treatment correctly. The results based on the evaluation of photographs indicated that the effect of regenerative cuttings is negative while the impact of thinnings is positive. After a few years of cutting the stand is already regarded as clearly more pleasant than immediately after the cutting. Natural regeneration with seed trees seems to be a way to avoid the very negative immediate impact of clear-felling, especially in the case of Scots pine. Women, young, urban people and those who do not own forest or have work related to forests tended to experience thinnings less positively and saw regenerative cuttings as more harmful than the other test groups did.     

Pinus contorta growth in northern Sweden as affected by soil scarification

The aim of this study was to quantify the effects of different soil scarification methods on tree growth. Soil scarification influenced stem volume and stem biomass yield of lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta Dougl. var. latifolia Engelm.) in a 17-year-old field trial in boreal Sweden. Soil scarification (disc trenching, mounding and ploughing) resulted in an average stem volume yield of 3.1 and 34.2 m³ ha^–1 on the poor and intermediate sites, respectively, while corresponding values for no soil scarification were 0.9 and 16.7 m³ ha^–1. In comparison to no scarification, ploughing increased volume yields by 500% on the poor site and by 200% on the intermediate sites. The ranking according to stem volume yield was ploughing > disc trenching = mounding no soil scarification. Averaged over the two sites, the mean annual increment of stem biomass was 219% and 145% higher (in d.w., 0.26 kg and 0.34 kg per sample tree) after ploughing compared with no soil scarification, for the average and dominant sample trees, respectively. Although not significant, the increased growth rate after soil scarification decreased the average stem basic wood density of the sample trees with 1.6% and 5.3%, at the poor and intermediate sites, respectively. In conclusion, soil scarification significantly increased the 17-year stem volume yield compared with no scarification. The results also indicate that the difference in stem biomass yield between ploughing and the other methods, especially no soil scarification, will increase even more in the near future.