Use of carbofuran for control of eastern white pine cone and seed insects

The major insects that destroy cones and seeds of eastern white pine, Pinus strobus L., were controlled with soil applications of the systematic insecticide carbofuran in orchards at Murphy and Morganton, NC, U.S.A. Carbofuran applied once a year at rates of 4.5, 9.0 or 13.5 g AI (active ingredient) per cm of diameter at breast height protected trees from the white pine cone beetle, Conophthorus coniperda (Schwarz), the leaffooted pine seed bug, Leptoglossus corculus (Say), the shieldbacked pine seed bug, Tetyra bipunctata (Herrich-Schäffer), and the white pine cone borer, Eucosma tocullionana Heinrich. Control was reflected by increased cone survival and increased yields of filled seeds per cone. Increasing the rate of application from 4.5 to 9.0 or 13.5 g generally improved control, but the improvement was not of statistical or practical significance. Carbofuran was ineffective against a seed chalcid, Megastigmus atedius (Walker). White pine clones varied in inherent susceptibility to insect attacks.     

Chrysomyxa ledi,a new rust fungus sporulating in cone scales of Picea abies in Finland

Abstract

Seasonal fruiting and sporulation of cone rusts were investigated in Norway spruce cones during the growing season of 2007, a year after an excellent cone crop and a severe outbreak of rust. Current-year and 1-year-old cones were collected bimonthly to monthly from case-stands in southern and northern Finland and checked for rust fruitbodies. A previously unreported species of rust formed spermogonia and aecia, and sporulated on the cone scales of Norway spruce in two study areas. Morphologically, the rust was distinct from other spruce cone rusts and, based on ultrastructure of aecia and aeciospores, most closely resembled Chrysomyxa ledi. Molecular analysis of the aeciospores confirmed that the rust belonged to the C. ledi/C. rhododendri complex. The rust fruited frequently but only colonized a few scales per cone and presumably had a minor effect on cone development and seed crop.     

Production of a new generation of seeds through the use of somatic clones in controlled crosses of black spruce (Picea mariana)

To assess the potential to integrate somatic clones (SC) of desired characteristics in production of high genetic quality seed, controlled crosses between different SCs of black spruce (Picea mariana (Mill) B.S.P.) were used to assess their suitability for the production of viable pollen, cones, seeds and seedlings. These SC produced male and female strobili at an early stage. Pollen, cones and seeds produced were characterized (mass, size, germination); their characteristics were similar to those produced by trees in natural forests or seed orchards. A maternal effect was demonstrated for the cone size and seed mass. Although seeds had excellent germination rates, the somatic biparental crosses were divided into three distinct groups with different germination curves using the Weibull function. Seeds from controlled crosses between different SC enabled the production of high morpho-physiological quality seedlings in a forest nursery. Using black spruce as a model, we showed, for the first time, that SC can be used as seed producers. These encouraging results open new perspectives on the tangible integration of somatic embryogenesis (SE) in the chain of seed, vegetative propagation (cuttings and SE) and production of plants for high productivity plantations. Controlled crosses can be made between SC with the desired characteristics (fewer large branches, fewer nodes, good growth, high wood density, performance, improved yield, etc.), vegetative propagules produced and deployed to clonal tests. After elimination of the worst performing SC, clonal tests can be converted into seed orchards that produce a new generation of seeds of high genetic quality. This will allow the rapid introduction of new materials in elite breeding programs of forest species.     

Genetic variation in fruitfulness in a hinoki (Chamaecyparis obtusa Endl.) seed orchard and its impact on the maintenance of genetic diversity in seedlots

Genetic variation in seed/cone production among clones was studied in a hinoki (Chamaecyparis obtusa Endl.) seed orchard containing 25 plus-trees by analyzing the number of cones, the yield of cones and seeds of individual ramets for 5 successive years (1982 to 1986). There was significant variation among clones each year and parental contribution in the seed orchard. Specifically, in the years 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985, and 1986, 20% of the clones produced 37.2, 60.6, 36.0, 44.3, and 44.8% of the total cones, respectively. The size of the crop greatly influenced the parental balance in the resulting seed/cone crops. The product moment correlation coefficients and Spearman’s coefficients of rank correlation were small and insignificant between consecutive years, but large and highly significant between alternate years, suggesting the presence of carry-over effects in seed/cone production. The broad-sense heritability on a clone mean basis was 0.74 ± 0.15 for the number of cones, 0.72 ± 0.14 for the yield of cones, and 0.68 ± 0.13 for the yield of seeds. The corresponding heritabilities from analyses combined over all years were 0.24, 0.558, and 0.724, respectively. These results indicate that seed/cone production in hinoki is under strong genetic control. Several managerial measures are discussed that maintain the genetic diversity in seedlots used for reforestation, by reducing the variation in seed/cone production among clones and producing seed crops with equal contributions from all parents.     

Seed cone abortion and full seed production in an indoor seed orchard with potted grafts of Picea abies

Abortion of seed cones and production of full seeds have been recorded in an indoor‐potted Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) seed orchard at Biri nursery in Norway. Seed cone buds aborted their normal development at much higher frequencies (22–45%) inside isolation bags than in an open‐air (4–12%) greenhouse environment. The grafts had been induced to flower the year prior to seed cone development. Treatment with gibberellin A_4/7 in conjunction with heat reduced the proportion of aborted, isolated flowers (13%) compared to treatment with heat alone (22%) in a clonally balanced material. The production of full seeds per cone increased from 3 in 1987 to 50 in 1991. The full seed production is discussed in relation to methods and timing of pollen forcing. It is anticipated that 1 kg of seeds could be produced annually in a 1250 m² greenhouse.     

Ernobius kailidisi Johnson (1975) (Coleoptera,Anobiidae), ein neuer Tannenzapfenschädling in Griechenland

Ernobius kailidisi Johnson is a new species which attacks the cones ofAbies cephalonica andA. borissi-regis in Greece. It is likeErnobius abietis, so that earlier was confused with it. It is an univoltine insect, the adults fly from April until June and deposite their eggs between the scales of the new fir-cones. The larvae have 5 instars, bore in the cone axis and eat on cone scales and seeds. New adults hatch in early September of the same year but they remain in the attacked cones. The insect overwinters as adult or as mature larva in the cones.     

Thinning increases cone production of stone pine (Pinus pinea L.) stands in the Northern Plateau (Spain)

Context

Edible stone pine (Pinus pinea L.) nut is a forest product which provides the highest incomes to the owners of stone pine forests.

Aim

The objective of this work is to evaluate the effect of first thinning on growth and cone production in an artificially regenerated stand in order to determine optimum intensity.

Methods

A thinning trial was installed in 2004 to compare two thinning regimes (heavy and moderate) and a control treatment. From 2004 to 2012, six inventories of forest attributes were carried out, and the cone crop was harvested annually. We evaluated the effect of thinnings on growth using repeated measures analysis of variance with a mixed model approach. With regards to cone production, we first estimated the probability of finding cones in a tree by applying a generalized mixed model and then estimated cone production by using a mixed model, including climatic variables.

Results

We found that thinning had a positive influence on tree diameter increment. Thinning increased the probability of finding cones and cone production. However, significant differences between heavy and moderate thinnings were not found.

Conclusion

We recommend early silvicultural treatments in stone pine stands to favor the development of trees and larger edible pine nut production.     

New observation of cone flies attacking cones ofPicea obovata andLarix sibirica in central Siberia

Two species of cone flies (Strobilomyia anthracina andS. svenssoni) emerged from puparia were collected under Siberian spruce (Picea obovata) trees in the central part of the Krasnoyarsk region, central Siberia. Parasites of the Figitidae and Braconidae families emerged from 28.1% of the puparia, and fungal and bacterial diseases destroyed 24.8% of the puparia. Weight and length of the puparia depended on the sanitary status. Two types of cone fly eggs were observed on spruce cones. At least three species ofStrobilomyia (S. Infrequens, S. laricicola, and S. sibirica) attacked cones of Siberian larch (Larix sibirica) in central Siberia. (Responsible editor: Zhu Hong)     

Effects of accelerated pollen-cone development on pollen cytology and fertilizing potential in western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla)

Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla (Raf). Sarg.) pollen cones on cut branches were collected at different stages of development and maintained at room temperature in flasks of water to accelerate pollen-cone development and produce forced pollen. Accelerating pollen-cone development at early developmental stages reduced the number of cones that matured, decreased the quantity of pollen produced, increased the proportion of abnormally developed pollen and reduced the fertilizing potential of the pollen, as determined by seed efficiency. If the branches were collected after the pollen cones were at least 50% emerged beyond the bud scales, pollen-cone development could be successfully accelerated without decreasing pollen yield or fertilizing potential. Pollen collected from cones which were accelerated at early stages and stored for two years had a lower fertilizing potential and produced fewer seeds per cone than either unstored pollen or stored pollen collected from cones accelerated at later stages of development. The feasibility of accelerating pollen-cone development to ensure adequate supplies of pollen for controlled crosses or supplemental mass pollination is discussed.     

Germination capacity of Thekopsora areolata aeciospores and the effect of cone rusts on seeds of Picea abies

Mature Norway spruce (Picea abies) cones of different ages and colonized by Thekopsora areolata were collected in northern Finland 2009–2010. The germination capacity of aeciospores collected from intact aecia was measured on water agar and compared across cone age. Seed formation was investigated in healthy cones and those infected by T. areolata, Chrysomyxa pirolata, Chrysomyxa ledi, and seed germination was also measured for healthy cones and those infected by T. areolata. Unsporulated aecia of T. areolata occurred in 0- to 4-year-old cones. Aeciospores from current-year cones did not germinate and the germination capacity was significantly higher in one- to three-year-old cones than in older or current-year cones. However, a small number of aeciospores remained viable in four-year-old cones. Seed number and apparent health were significantly lower in cones infected by T. areolata and C. pirolata than in healthy cones or cones infected by C. ledi. Seed germination was significantly lower in cones infected with T. areolata compared to seeds from healthy cones. Our results suggest that infected cones more than one-year old continue to spread T. areolata for several years after the initial infection and fruiting, and thus promote the likelihood of epidemics and virulence of local outbreaks. Although cones infected by T. areolata and C. pirolata form significantly fewer seeds and of diminished viability, C. ledi does not appear to affect seed formation and health in Norway spruce. We recommend all rust-infected cones to be removed from orchards to improve stand health, reduce the risk of local outbreaks, and thereby increase the production and quality of Norway spruce seed.     

日本落叶松种子园优良家系球花分布规律及花量调查

对日本落叶松种子园优良家系雌雄球花数量及在树冠上的分布规律进行调查分析。结果表明:日本落叶松雄球花在树冠垂直方向上分布差异极显著,下层和中层的数量显著多于上层,所占比例为83.39%,水平方向上南面的雄球花多于其他方向;雌球花在树冠不同冠层的分布无显著差异,中、上层的雌球花数量比下层多,东、南方向多于西、北方向;雄球花多着生在2,3 a生枝上,雌球花多着生在3,4 a生枝上,1 a生枝条上无花;不同无性系间雌雄球花数量差异显著,356号无性系的雌雄球花数量均为最多。     

Relative susceptibility of four species of African mahogany to the shoot borer Hypsipyla robusta (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in the moist semideciduous forest of Ghana

We examined the relative susceptibility of four mahogany species, Khaya ivorensis, Khaya anthotheca, Entandrophragma angolense, and E. utile, to Hypsipyla robusta attack. Seeds were obtained from one to three parent trees for each species. The research was conducted in the moist semideciduous forest zone in Ghana and used a randomized complete block design. Tree height and diameter and height to first branch were measured until 24 months after out-planting in the field. H. robusta damage was assessed by counting the numbers of shoots attacked, branches, and dead shoots. Khaya spp. grew better but experienced more attack than Entandrophragma spp. The relative susceptibility to H. robusta attack, from most to least, of the four species was: K. anthotheca > K. ivorensis > E. angolense > E. utile. At 24 months, the mean number of shoots attacked per tree ranged from 1.0 for an E. utile seed source to 3.6 on for a K. anthotheca seed source. At 15 months, K. anthotheca and K. ivorensis started branching at about 1.5 m, but height of clear trunk increased over time due to self-pruning. As K. anthotheca grew taller, the number of H. robusta attacks per tree declined. This suggested that selection of genotypes and species that are tolerant of H. robusta attack based on infestation of young plants may not be appropriate. Genetic factors more completely reflecting the response of different species and genotypes to H. robusta attack may manifest themselves at later growth stages.     

杉木种子园种子产量预测预报模型研究

林木种子是林业生产的物质基础,种子产量的预测预报是实现林木种子生产科学管理的重要基础性工作。随着预测超前性、简便实用性和精度要求的不断提高,多种预测方法便应运而生（方升佐,１９９０;陈幼生,１９９３）［１,２］。笔者结合杉木［Ｃｕｎｎｉｎｇｈａｍｉａ...     

Effects of stem girdling on cone yield and endogenous phytohormones and metabolites in developing long shoots of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)

Stem-girdling treatments were applied in early spring to stimulate cone formation in two genotypes of interior Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca (Beissn.) Franco). After girdling treatments, male cone yield increased significantly in the next growing season. The increase was 14-fold in genotype 9137. In genotype 9550, more than 8,700 male cones were induced from each tree whereas no male cones were found in controls. Female cone yield was zero in controls and low for girdled trees in both genotypes. Multiple phytohormone-related compounds, including gibberellins (GAs), cytokinins, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), abscisic acid (ABA) and their selected metabolites, were analyzed in developing long shoots after girdling treatments by high performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC?CESI?CMS/MS) in multiple reaction monitoring mode. Concentrations of GA₄ were slightly higher at week 2 following girdling treatment, whereas at week 8 lower GA₄ concentrations were found in girdled samples. Stem girdling did not affect concentrations of IAA and major cytokinins, such as zeatin riboside and isopentenyl adenosine. Concentrations of ABA differed two-fold between the genotypes. Although girdling treatment did not cause differences in ABA concentrations, it generally resulted in higher concentrations of ABA glucose ester. Concentration increase of 7??-hydroxy ABA by girdling was only found in genotype 9550 at week 8. Girdling caused little change in concentrations of phaseic acid in both genotypes.     

Newcone and seed pests collected in Northeastern ChinaBarbara fulgens Kuznetsov (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) the lustrous spruce cone moth

This paper is the first of a series dealing with morphological characteristics, biological cycle and damage importance of insect species newly identified as cone and seed pests in Northeastern China. The spruce cone mothBarbara fulgens appears to be a serious pest of korean spruce cones in Heilongjiang province.     

Tree density and site quality influence on Pinus halepensis Mill. reproductive characteristics after large fires

In Spain, many Pinus halepensis Mill. forests have been seriously affected by significant forest fires in the past decade, in 1994 alone, more than 100 000 ha were burned in Eastern Spain. In order to study the reproductive characteristics of P. halepensis after forest fires, six locations were selected in four areas affected by serious fires in the summer of 1994, and the following different precipitation zones were studied: dry-subhumid, dry and semi-arid. Ten years after the fires, data relevant to the production of pine cones: serotinous (grey), mature (brown), immature (green) and opened cones, was collected from areas with natural post-fire regeneration. Various cone and seed characteristics, such as pine cone seed number and weight, and germination percentage, were measured. The results showed greater production of cones and strobili in high-density sites. The biggest cone sizes (volume) and seed number per cone were related to site quality (dry-subhumid precipitation zone). Also, viability and germination percentages were higher with better site quality, with significant differences in values for serotinous and non-serotinous cones. Despite these differences, the canopy seed bank was large enough to ensure regeneration in this area for this age stand.     

New observation of cone flies attacking cones of Picea obovata andLarix sibirica in central Siberia

lntroductionConeniesofgenusStfObilOmwiMichelsen(=LasiOmmaSteinAuct-partim=ChorthOPhil8Macquart=HtwiaRobineau-Desvoidy,DiPtera:Anthomyiidae)arewidespreadpestsdamagingconesandseedsofconifers(Roquesetal1996)-SpeciesofthisapparentIymonophyleticgenusoccurmainlyintheborealandMontanapartsoftheHoIartic,wherelarvaIinstarsdevelopexclusivelyintheconesofvariousgroupsofPinaceaeexceptthepinespecies(Michelsen,1988).AtotalOf19SbobiIOmyisspecieswereidentified(TUrgeonetal1994;Roquesetal1996),moStof…     

Biogeographic differences in cone, needle and seed morphology among natural Picea asperata populations in Western China

This study represents a geographical approach to morphological variation of cones, needles and seeds in natural dragon spruce (Picea asperata Mast.) populations across western China and the relationship between morphological traits and weather variation for the origins of populations. Significant differences were found for all cone, needle and seed traits among populations and trees within populations. The coefficients of variation in 2 higher latitude populations were higher than those in other populations in all traits except for needle width and seed width. Fairly high within-population variability was also detected for cone dry weight, seed dry weight and needle traits in this study. Cone length, cone width, cone dry weight, seed scale length, seed scale width and seed wing length were strongly positively intercorrelated. Seed length and seed dry weight showed a significantly positive correlation with seed wing length. And needle width showed a significant negative correlation with cone traits, seed scale length, seed wing length and seed length. The higher the annual mean temperature, the higher the average cone length. This study also revealed a negative linear dependence on latitude: the higher the latitude, the lower the population average seed length. Seed dry weight was positively and linearly related with altitude.     

Temperature dependence of the dynamic viscoelasticity of bases of Japanese cypress branches and the trunk close to the branches saturated with water

With the aim of obtaining findings on the dynamic properties of branches and their bases, as well as their support mechanisms, the present study examined the temperature dependence of the dynamic viscoelasticity of Japanese cypress samples saturated with water to clarify the responses in different regions, and identified factors influencing the characteristics. In the bases of the branches: E′ sharply decreased at approximately room temperature and significantly decreased at around 20 and 60 °C; a peak and shoulder peak of E″ or tan δ were noted at around 20 °C, and there was another peak of tan δ at around 60–80 °C; and mechanical relaxation was noted at around 20 °C and 60–80 °C. On the other hand, in some regions, including the trunks, branches, and their bases, mechanical relaxation was only noted on the high-temperature side. However, boiling treatment with about 12 % weight loss inhibited mechanical relaxation, and there were decreases in E′, E″, and tan δ at approximately room temperature. The bases of the branches of Japanese cypress are considered to develop its elasticity and viscosity to tolerate external stress by accumulating an extract, which enhances the strength of lignin.     

Fruiting and sporulation of Thekopsora and Chrysomyxa cone rusts in Picea cones and Prunus leaves

Natural fruiting and sporulation of cone rusts were investigated in cones of Picea spp. and leaves of Prunus spp. in a botanical garden in northern Finland in 2007–2012. Thekopsora areolata was the most frequent cone rust in Picea abies cones, where it colonizes the host tissues and hinders normal seed development. Aecia of T. areolata were also common in cones of Picea engelmannii and occasionally in cones of P. glauca. Aecia of T. areolata sporulated in cones that were at least one year old. Chrysomyxa pirolata, another pathogenic cone rust, fruited and sporulated annually but infrequently in current‐year cones of P. abies. The spruce needle rust, Chrysomyxa ledi, fruited and sporulated commonly in current‐year cone scales of P. abies, P. omorika and P. glauca, while P. rubens, P. mariana and P. pungens appeared to be resistant during the study period. Chrysomyxa ledi did not affect seed development in infected cones. Uredinia of T. areolata frequently occurred on leaves of 41 Finnish and Russian cultivars, varieties or subspecies of Prunus padus L. ssp. badus and ssp. borealis and Pr. virginiana both in the botanical garden and in the field, while 13 exotic Prunus spp. lacked rust fruitbodies. All the Pr. padus cultivars were highly susceptible to T. areolata, thus, spreading the rust efficiently to surroundings. This is the first report of aecia of T. areolata in cones of P. engelmannii and P. glauca, and those of C. ledi in cones of P. omorika and P. glauca. Molecular identification confirmed the presence of T. areolata and C. pirolata on all hosts, and all samples of C. ledi belonged to the C. ledi‐rhododendri complex.