Problems and Countermeasures to Timber Trade between China and Russian Far East Region

The shortfall of timber resource in China constantly keeps about 150 million m3, which mainly relies on import to fill in the gap. However, Russia, the key timber supply state of China, has encouraged the development of its national intensive timber processing and therefore the Russian Far East Region started to gradually restrict log export. To this end, this paper analyzes the situation of forest industry and timber production in Russian Far East and discusses the current status and existing problems in timber trade between Russian Far East and China. At the end, the paper presents policy recommendation for future timber trade between Russian Far East and China and views their forestry cooperation prospect.     

How does forest certification contribute to boreal biodiversity conservation? Standards and outcomes in Sweden and NW Russia

Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) is one of the leading forest certification schemes. While many studies concern political aspects and social outcomes of FSC, little is known about the contribution of certification to biodiversity conservation. In Europe, the Russian Federation and Sweden have the largest areas of FSC-certified forest. We assessed the potential of FSC certification for boreal biodiversity conservation in terms of standard content, and outcomes as habitat area set aside and habitat network functionality. First, we compared the biodiversity conservation indicators at different spatial scales in Swedish and Russian FSC standards. Second, focusing on one large state forest management unit in each country, we compared the areas of formally and voluntarily set aside forests for biodiversity conservation. Third, we evaluated the structural habitat connectivity by applying morphological spatial pattern analysis, and potential functional connectivity by using habitat suitability index modelling for virtual species. The Russian standard included indicators for all spatial scales of biodiversity conservation, from tree and stand to landscape and ecoregions. The Swedish standard focused mainly on stand and tree scales. The area of voluntary set-asides for FSC was similar in Sweden and Russia, while formal protection in the Russian case study was three times higher than in the Swedish one. Swedish set-aside core areas were two orders of magnitude smaller, had much lower structural and potential functional connectivity and were located in a fragmented forestland holding. We conclude that to understand the potential of FSC certification for biodiversity conservation both the standard content, and its implementation on the ground, need to be assessed. We discuss the potential of FSC certification for biodiversity conservation with different levels of ambition. We stress the need for developing rapid assessment tools to evaluate outcomes of FSC for biodiversity conservation on the ground, which could be used by forest managers and FSC-auditors toward adaptive governance and management.     

Creating trust in institutions in Russian forest localities

Russia is a country with a low level of trust. In consequence, companies working in Russia have to emphasize the development and maintenance of trust with all their interest groups. In this paper we study how trust is built up at the local level with municipalities and local communities. Local level interest groups, however, seem to be less significant for companies in contemporary Russian countryside. This paper will provide an analysis of why local level interest groups are weak and what the consequences are. The paper also discusses legislation and regulations affecting social structures in the Russian countryside showing why and how much social responsibility is transferred to companies. In addition, the paper discusses whether private governance regulation, such as forest certification, will help local communities to be heard.The paper applies Douglass North's approach to economic development with formal and informal institutions, and also the literature on trust and the social responsibility of enterprises. Formal institutions such as national legislation and international privately controlled rules of FSC certification are compared with informal practices at the local level.Cooperation with companies and environmental organizations has complemented traditional Russian social responsibility and increased cooperation between the different interest groups. NGOs can also help local communities to be heard, but since companies are more concerned with the trust of their clients, weak municipalities remain humble receivers of aid. Globalization also makes companies pay more attention to their competitiveness, which will exert pressure on the government to arrange social security and strengthen municipalities. Structural changes in Russia will, however, take time, since Russia not only has to tackle the construction of new formal institutions but it must also deal with the increasing effects of globalization as it changes the traditional structures of democracy and a market economy.     

森林认证对森林可持续经营的影响及其在中国的实践

开展森林认证是促进我国森林管理与国际接轨并实现森林可持续经营的有效途径。文中概述了森林认证的发展概况以及森林认证对森林可持续经营的影响,并以我国吉林省经过认证的森林经营企业为例,通过对森林认证前后的对比,以及与未经过认证的国有林业局对比,分析森林认证对经济、社会和环境等方面的具体影响。结果表明,森林认证的开展在经济上可行,使社会受益,对环境友好,能够促进森林可持续经营。文中还对我国开展森林认证工作提出了具体措施建议。     

The effect of expertise on the quality of forest standards implementation: The case of FSC forest certification in Russia

The central question of the paper is how differences in expertise affect the implementation of voluntary environmental standards in the forestry sector. Specifically we analyze the experience of two large forest companies in Russia that certified their forest management under the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) forest certification program. Drawing on the literature on financial auditing we show that specific outcomes of forest management standards implementation are shaped by the differences in forest management auditors' knowledge, skills and attitudes.     

Forest policy reform and the restructuring of the forest industry in Russia

The Russian forest is the last big wood basket of the international timber market and the conservation of the Russian forest is critical to protect global environment. There is a strong need to analyze present situation of forest policy and forest industry in Russia. The basic direction of forest policy reform of Russia is decentralization and introduction of market principles. However, the lack of specialists in forest policy in the regions and the conflict between central and regional governments has accelerated the confusion of forest policy. Forest management organizations cannot spare enough money for forest management because of the financial crisis of Russian government. Forest industry has also deteriorated. Although privatization of the forest industry was completed, it did not improve the management of enterprises and they could not survive the economic crisis. Output of the forest industry has decreased and most enterprises came close to bankruptcy. Under these circumstances, the former regional amalgamation of forest industry, which has accumulated hard currency earned by timber export, re-took control of the industry and tried to increase timber exports even more. However, logging enterprises, facing economic crises, cannot observe forest regulations and forest management organization cannot control these violations. A recovery of forest industry may accelerate the degradation of forest resources in Russia.     

Assessment of motivation and attitudes of forest industry companies toward forest certification in northwestern Russia

This study explores for the first time the attitudes and motivation associated with forest certification among forest industry companies in northwestern Russia. Interviews were carried out in the form of a structured questionnaire including 35 forest industry companies operating in northwestern Russia. Although development of certification in individual companies was initiated by general market demand, representatives of certified companies also emphasized the importance of internal corporate policy. Certified and noncertified groups of respondents identified market demand as a main driving force influencing development of forest certification. Ensuring the legality of wood origin, company's image and competitiveness of wood products were recognized as the most important benefits associated with forest certification. Absence of mandatory requirements from authorities and customers appeared to be the largest obstacle among both groups of respondents. Representatives of noncertified companies pointed out economic inaccessibility and low level of preparedness of management as of high importance, which is mainly associated with absence of quality management system. The results of the study indicated a general positive attitude on forest certification; it was noticed that respondents have gaps in understanding the principles and limited awareness with regards to forest certification, especially among noncertified forest industry companies.     

International expectations for sustainable forestry: a view from the U.S. forest industry

Today several global forces are raising expectations that forestry must be practiced on a sustainable basis. This is true for forestry as practiced in tropical, temperate, and boreal regions, as well as in developed and developing countries. Several institutional processes are in place to develop criteria for and indicators of sustainable forestry. As customers and consumers have become more knowledgeable, they are becoming more demanding about the environmental attributes of the products they buy. Forest products companies and forest landowners who wish to maintain access to these more demanding markets will need to provide assurances of their commitment to sustainable forestry practices.Forest landowners and forest products manufacturers in Washington, Oregon, and California are currently better positioned to meet these expectations than are producers in other regions. In these western states, state forest practices laws and regulations are generally consistent with emerging international criteria and indicators of sustainable management.However, U.S. competitors in such countries as Canada and Sweden are acting rapidly to establish sustainable forestry practices, and to communicate their commitments to their stakeholders and customers. The assurance of sustainable forestry practices is now the latest means by which environmentally aware and demanding customers and consumers differentiate among forest products producers.     

Russian Far East forest disturbances and socio-economic problems of restoration

For many years the economy of the Russian Far East relied on the military potential and use of natural resources, such as fish, wood and minerals. The economic crisis of the 1990s led to an increase in the importance of extractive industries and exploitation of natural resources became even more active with the application of the most exhausting and damaging methods. During the transition period to a market economy, the system of legislation and control over the use of natural resources weakened considerably and, as a consequence, there are continued efforts to expand logging in protected areas, non-compliance with cutting regulations and harvest of forbidden species like Korean pine. As a result, the degradation of unique complexes and reduction in populations of endangered species continues. With 26% of Russia’s forest reserves, the Far East represents a mammoth opportunity to contribute to the solution of numerous ecological problems, both local and international, including carbon sequestration, biodiversity conservation, regeneration and forest disturbances. The paper presents an analysis of recent processes in Far East forests that are related to disturbances and their socio-economic consequences.     

Forest Stewardship Council certification for forest ecosystem services: An analysis of stakeholder adaptability

There are many studies indicating the linkages of Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) forest management certification to forest ecosystem services (FES). The primary focus of the research was the FSC system's impacts on FES management. What is unique about this study is that it evaluates the adaptability of key FSC stakeholders in terms of their ability to incorporate FES. We surveyed 270 FSC stakeholders to quantify the capacity of FSC certification bodies (e.g., auditors) to audit FES delivery, the preferences of FSC enabling partners (e.g., FSC national networks) to provide training, and the experiences and expectations of FSC certificate holders (e.g., forest owners) to manage and sell FES. The study results indicate that the stakeholder adaptability was high for biodiversity conservation, carbon storage, and provision of non-timber forest products, medium for watershed protection services, and low for ecotourism and agricultural products. This may help FSC establish priorities for capacity development for FES.     

Distribution of the larch brown rust caused byTriphragmiopsis laricinum (Uredinales) in Russian Far East

The larch brown rust caused byTriphragmiopsis laricinum was found onLarix cajandri in Primorsky Territory, Russia. This was a new host and locality record for the pathogen. Preliminary survey of the disease incidence in several localities in East and Northeast Russia and Yakutia-Sakha Republic indicated the restricted distribution of the rust in a few localities in Primorsky Territory. As previously reported in China,T. laricinum was proved to form uredinia in nature and to be able to propagate vegetatively by urediniospores. This suggests the fungus could become a devastating pathogen threatening a large-scale larch plantation in Far East of Russia. Field observations and the failure of basidiospore inoculation onto larch needles suggest the heteroecious life cycle ofT. laricinum.     

Experiences of a Forest Owners’ Cooperative in using FSC forest certification as an environmental strategy

Yusuhara Forest Owners’ Cooperative (YFOC) in Kochi Prefecture in Japan received its forest management certification from the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) in 2000. YFOC is recognised as the resource manager of its members’ forests, and they were the first organisation to gain such certification in Japan. With the continuous efforts of selling FSC certified wood in the domestic housing construction market, YFOC has substantially increased their timber sales in recent years. It is a noteworthy event in Japanese small-scale forestry, which has been struggling with declining economic performance for many years. This paper analyses the detail of forestry activities and changes which occurred in YFOC after certification by FSC. An interesting effect of increasing economic performance is found to have come from an unexpected direction. It is concluded that the FSC certification system is a possible tool to revitalise Japanese small-scale forestry as well as obtain favourable environmental outcomes.     

From logging frontier towards sustainable forest management: experiences from boreal regions of North-West Russia and North Sweden

This article describes the transformation of old-growth forest to managed forests, in North (N) Sweden and boreal regions of North-West (BNW) Russia, from economic, social and ecological perspectives. Whereas in BNW Russia, the logging frontier could be kept moving into unharvested regions, N Sweden earlier had to develop solutions where large-scale logging had already taken place. In 1950–1990, Swedish strategies included rationing of old forest, effective regeneration and also precommercial and commercial thinning. Supporting means were legislation, government-funded subsidies and collaboration among enterprises, researchers and political leaders. BNW Russia is currently facing similar challenges and N Swedish experiences should be analysed and used where applicable. In N Sweden, a too low proportion of representative productive old forests remains, but in the last decades, N Swedish forests exempted from economic use have been significantly increased. Ongoing discussions of also defining areas with more intensive forest management would lead to a zoning, bearing some resemblance to the Russian system, in use since 1943. Russian experience should, therefore, be of interest to Swedish forest policy-makers. Both countries have problems with rural social issues. Both can benefit from collaboration on these aspects of sustainable forest management.     

大兴安岭阿木尔林业局对俄罗斯森林资源开发建设成果的评价

对俄罗斯森林资源开发前景、开发潜力、资源结构以及利用价值作了深入的探索研究。通过在俄罗斯远东林区进行森林资源的合理开发利用,缓解国内市场对木材的供需矛盾,并带动了对俄的资源开发和经贸事业的发展。     

Why Brazilian companies are certifying their forests?

The paper examines the two forest certification schemes in Brazil, the Brazilian Program of Forest Certification (Cerflor) and the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), from the private sector perspective. The main focus is to test the relevance of three mechanisms—market, learning, and signaling—suggested by Overdevest and Rickenbach (2006), to explain forest certification adoption by Brazilian companies. Furthermore, companies' familiarity with certification systems, external influences on pursuing forest certification, and companies' intention to recertify their forests are investigated. An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) suggests that signaling and learning mechanisms lead to better and more transparent forest management, explaining the movement towards certification, but market incentives do not play an important role in the adoption of forest certification. An importance and performance analysis (IPA) demonstrates that companies do not see any return in terms of a better price for certified products; however, certificate holders indicated overall high satisfaction with market access. Interestingly, a high performance was found for non-economic benefits such as public confidence, improvement of forest management and practices, improvement of management systems and performance, self-discovery of non-conformance, and better public, landowner, and supplier communication. International consumers and shareholders were considered the most important groups influencing companies to seek certification and FSC was reported to be the most familiar scheme. Generally, companies were pleased with certification and indicated their intention to recertify.     

Does forest certification enhance livelihood conditions? Empirical evidence from forest management in Kilwa District,Tanzania

The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) forest management certification standards have been promoted to contribute to community livelihood conditions. However, little has been done to evaluate it quantitatively. Employing theory of change, this study assesses and compares empirical evidence of the influence of the FSC forest management certification approach to enhance livelihood conditions in Kilwa, Tanzania, by using economic valuation methods and governance indicators. This is achieved through a comparative study of villages with certified community forests (FSC) under community based forest management and those without (non-FSC). Results show that annual average household forest income from FSC-certified forests is significantly higher than that of households in non-FSC-certified forests. With reference to rule compliance as an indicator of good governance, implementation of forest bylaws in villages managing FSC-certified forests is significantly more effective than villages in non-FSC-certified forests. These findings provide an insight into the influence of forest certification in enhancing livelihood conditions and that the incorporation of FSC standards into forest policies may lead to more enhancement of livelihood conditions. These findings serve as a baseline for further research on the effects of forest certification at both spatial and temporal scales.     

中俄两国森林资源现状与木材供求前景分析

俄罗斯森林资源十分丰富,并且主要集中在俄罗斯远东西伯利亚地区。中国对森林资源需求旺盛,并已成为重要的木材消费大国和进口大国。在系统研究中俄两国森林资源状况与木材需求现状的基础上指出,随着经济的发展与环保压力的增加,未来中俄两国在森林资源利用和木材贸易方面将呈现旺盛的发展态势,并认为中国和俄罗斯两国政府和企业将在未来林业经贸合作过程中发挥重要作用。     

Certification of community forestry enterprises: experiences with incorporating community forestry in a global system for forest governance

This paper discusses the history and present status of community forest certification as an illustration of the growing interactions between global and local processes in forest governance. The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certification system is analyzed as an illustrative case of the trend towards increased incorporation of community-based forest enterprises (CFEs) into international initiatives for sustainable forest management and global markets. First the paper reviews the development of community-based forest management and the evolution in certification of community-based forest enterprises. Next it discusses the main challenges and opportunities for making CFE certification accessible and beneficial for communities. Finally it illustrates the importance of multi-level and multi-actor partnerships for creating effective interfaces between global standards and community forestry practices. The experiences with FSC certification of community-based forest enterprises demonstrate that community forestry is enlarging its scope from autonomous decision-making on local practice to incorporation in international forest governance systems. This experience also demonstrates that the application of global standards for sustainable forest management requires adaptation to local realities. These lessons are of relevance for further incorporation of community forestry in the newly evolving global programs for forest management and conservation.     

参与式森林资源规划设计调查的探讨

为了更准确地得到森林资源规划设计调查成果和制定确实可行的经营措施,提出了调查单位与被调查区域内相关利益者共同参与的森林资源调查方法,阐述了参与式森林资源规划设计调查的可行性、必要性以及实现的途径。     

Prospects of forest road infrastructure development in northwest Russia with proven Nordic solutions

This paper analyses the situation with forest roads in Russia in the context of harvesting, transportation, forest management and forest fire prevention. Russia harvests less than 30% of its allowable harvest potential. Forest fires burn volumes which are equal to half of the annual harvest. One reason is the insufficient density and quality of forest roads. The average density of roads is less than 1.5 m/ha, which is one-tenth of that in Nordic countries. We argue that better access to the forests, utilizing the technology transfer of the proven Nordic forest road solutions (NFRS) under local conditions, might have important effects on the strategy-making processes in forest infrastructure development in northwest Russia. For this purpose, A'WOT analysis is proposed to identify the related strategies and assign priorities to those strategies. According to this study undertaken in Karelia, where NFRS were introduced over 10 years ago, the top priorities regarding the relevant threats are the lack of legal framework under forest land leasing and the low profitability of forestry. The results indicate that the NFRS are viewed positively for the Russian conditions. The forest road market has virtually unlimited opportunities for growth. Together with a favourable policy in terms of national and regional development programmes it can support forest infrastructure development. Forest fire prevention, multiple uses of woodlands, and different environmental service markets are seen as potential opportunities for NFRS. However, the results also indicate that there is substantial uncertainty and scepticism concerning how such markets would be of benefit to leaseholders who would like to adopt intensive forestry.