The compatibility of timber and non-timber forest product extraction and management

We discuss the extent of compatibility of timber and non-timber forest product (NTFP) extraction in two neotropical localities from biophysical, social, and institutional perspectives: the community concession forests of the Petén, Guatemala, and extractivist communities in northern Bolivia. In both localities, timber is harvested via reduced-impact logging (RIL) practices. In Guatemala, the main NTFP extracted is foliage from the understory xate palm (Chamaedorea spp.); in northern Bolivia, the fruits of the Brazil nut tree (Bertholletia excelsa). The Guatemalan case suggests a relatively high degree of compatibility due to low timber harvesting intensities, coupled with temporal, spatial, and social segregation of xate extraction in a well-defined land tenure system. In northern Bolivia, forest management regulations pay little attention to NTFPs and land tenure issues and related conflict complicate efforts to limit timber harvesting impacts on Brazil nut trees. The introduction of timber management plans overlain on customary property rights systems in which the extraction of Brazil nut is organized could undercut its management system. The two case studies suggest that specific legislative, education, and project interventions may help to promote the compatibility of timber and NTFP extraction and management. These include formal training of foresters on NTFP ecology and management while taking into account the perspectives of multiple stakeholders in the design of management plans. Tropical forest users, research managers, and policy makers will also better understand the need for integrated management of timber and NTFPs, if the trade-offs and potential economic benefits from NTFP extraction are clarified.     

Compatibility of timber and non-timber forest product management in natural tropical forests: Perspectives,challenges, and opportunities

Tropical forests could satisfy multiple demands for goods and services both for present and future generations. Yet integrated approaches to natural forest management remain elusive across the tropics. In this paper we examine one combination of uses: selective harvesting of timber and non-timber forest product (NTFP) extraction. We analyze the current status of this combination and speculate on prospects and challenges regarding: (i) resource inventory, (ii) ecology and silviculture, (iii) conflict in the use of multipurpose tree species, (iv) wildlife conservation and use, (v) tenure, and (vi) product certification. Our conclusions remain preliminary due to the relative paucity of published studies and lessons learned on what has worked and what has not in the context of integrated management for timber and NTFPs. We propose at least three ways where further research is merited. One, in improving ‘opportunistic’ situations driven by selective timber harvesting that also enhance NTFP values. Two, to explicitly enhance both timber and NTFP values through targeted management interventions. Three, to explicitly assess biophysical, social, regulatory and institutional aspects so that combined benefits are maximized. Interventions for enhancing the compatibility of timber and NTFP extraction must be scaled in relation to the size of the area being managed, applied timber harvesting intensities, and the dynamics of multi-actor, forest partnerships (e.g., between the private sector and local communities). In addition, training and education issues may have to be re-crafted with multiple-use management approaches inserted into tropical forestry curricula.     

Estimating the demand for non-timber forest products among rural communities: a case study from the Sinharaja Rain Forest region,Sri Lanka

Lack of adequate knowledge on forest-people interaction is an important reason for the failure of many conservation policies. This study focuses on the behavior of peripheral communities towards non-timber forest product (NTFP) harvesting by estimating the demand functions for NTFP. The paper develops a theoretical model for deriving the shadow price for NTFP using time allocation among different economic activities. Then it tests the competitive time allocation hypothesis between NTFP extraction and tea plantations, the predominant agricultural sector in the vicinity of Sinharaja rain forest. Results provide statistical evidence for the existence of competitive time allocation between tea plantations and NTFP extraction. Own-price elasticities are consistently inelastic, except for one product. As indicated by the inelastic responses, pricing policies may not be very useful in manipulating subsistence NTFP extraction. Repeating similar studies for commercial NTFPs is encouraged.     

NTFP income contribution to household economy and related socio-economic factors: Lessons from Bangladesh

Exploring extent and pattern of non-timber forest product (NTFP) income contribution to livelihoods of forest-adjacent people and the income related socio-economic factors is crucial in designing any development and conservation initiative. This paper examines NTFPs' role in contributing to the household economy and how different socio-economic factors may influence this contribution. Field methods involved quantitative and qualitative data collection of forest-adjacent households of Chittagong Hill Tracts in Bangladesh. Results show that the contribution of different types of NTFPs to household economy varies in terms of subsistence and cash income. However, overall NTFP income is much higher than income from timber or firewood which indicates a larger dependence of the households on NTFPs. Income data analysis also finds that the poor households are relatively more dependent on NTFPs for their subsistence and cash income than the better-off households. Moreover, the study reveals that there are many other socio-economic factors at the household level such as number of members in household and total value of household implements and furniture that are significantly correlated with the NTFP income. More site-specific applied research on NTFP income and influential factors is necessary to generalize the findings for other parts of the world with similar socio-economic and environmental settings.     

Utilization of non-timber forest products in humid tropics: Implications for management and livelihood

Community dependence on forest resources for diverse needs has high implications for long term management of forests. Sustainable extraction of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) is considered best feasible strategy for forest conservation in biodiversity rich areas. This paper examines the heterogeneity of NTFPs use by tribal communities in northeast India, a global hot spot by examining diversity of NTFPs at-large, its consumption pattern, and contribution to rural income and forest revenue. A total of 343 NTFPs recorded used for diverse purposes by tribal communities. When species choice grouped as per use category, utilization for medicinal (163 species), edible fruits (75 species) and vegetables (65 species) purposes was reasonably high. Community dependence on forest resources was 100% for firewood and house construction material. 76 plant species were sold in three major local markets while an additional 22 species traded at commercial scale mainly outside the state. NTFPs contributed 19-32% of total household income for different tribal communities, which was significant. Illicium griffithii, Rubia cordifolia, Oroxylum indicum, Swertia chirayita, Litsea sebifera, Taxus wallichiana, Valeriana jatamansii, Thalictrum foliolosum, Picrorhiza kurrooa, Everniastrum cirrhatum, Cordyceps sinensis, Aconitum fletcherianum, Nardostachys jatamansi, Picrorhiza kurrooa, Gymnadenia orchidis, Calamus, Quercus and Pinus roxbughii were important commercial species. NTFPs also generated substantial revenue to the State government, though it is falling year after year, which is alarming. To meet community livelihoods, income and forest revenue from NTFPs, it desires a thorough management plan and policy guidelines for these resources from all line departments. The knowledge on diversity, its consumption pattern, and contribution to rural income and forest revenue may enable planners to accurately plan sustainable management of NTFP resources and community development in near future.     

Options for Non-Timber Forest Product Management in the Condor Bioreserve,Ecuador

Abstract

This paper describes and evaluates the current role that non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and their users play on the conservation of the four protected areas-Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, Reserva Ecológica Antisana, Parque Nacional Cotopaxi, and Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo Galeras-that comprise the Condor Bioreserve. The category non-timber forest product (also referred to as non-wood forest product) encompasses a myriad of resources that reside in forests and can be useful to people. Plants from which NTFPs are derived play essential roles in tropical forest ecosystem processes such as regeneration and nutrient cycling. In the Condor Bioreserve, certain species of such plants are commercially valuable while others are endangered. People are extracting these NTFPs from the Bioreserve, yet the magnitude and frequency of such extraction is unknown. This paper examines how the three groups of land users that have been identified by The Nature Conservancy-colonists, indigenous peoples, and hacienda owners-may utilize NTFPs. Understanding the role that these plants play in the lives of its collectors is imperative for designing effective strategies to alleviate pressure that extraction may place on the Condor Bioreserve ecosystems. Data on who harvests NTFPs, which plant parts they use, what quantities they harvest, and harvest frequency must be complemented by insight into how each group benefits from these activities. Moreover, an unbiased approach must examine how NTFP extraction may enhance certain ecosystems in addition to ways in which it may hurt Bioreserve resource ecosystems.     

Non-timber forest products and household incomes in Bonga forest area,southwestern Ethiopia

We identified the major non-timber forest products （NTFPs）, their contributions to household incomes, and the determinants influenc-ing engagement of households in using NTFPs in the Bonga forest area of Gimbo and Decha Districts of Kaffa Zone, southwest Ethiopia. Six Kebeles （the lowest administrative unit in Ethiopia） were sampled from two Districts and 150 households were randomly sampled using propor-tional-to-size techniques based on the number of farm households in each Kebele. Secondary data were collected from and focus group discussions were conducted with selected individuals. The farmers diversified liveli-hood activities such as crop and livestock production, collection of NTFPs and off-farm activities. NTFPs played a significant role in household incomes. The contribution from the major NTFPs （forest coffee, honey and spices） accounted for 47% of annual household in-come. The role of NTFPs was influenced by a number of factors. Vari-ables including being native to the area （＋）, total land holding （＋）, pos-session of livestock （＋） and access to extension （＋） significantly affected forest coffee production. Age of household head （-）, land holding （＋） and distance of the market from the residence （-） significantly affected honey production. Size of landholding （＋）, distance to market （-） and distance of the forest from the residence （-） were significant variables determining the NTFP incomes derived by the households. Attention is needed in the design of policies and strategies for the well-being of households to the contribution of NTFPs to local incomes and the variables that affect the collection of NTFPs must be considered.     

Ecological, socio-cultural, economic and political factors influencing the contribution of non-timber forest products to local livelihoods: Case studies from honduras and the Philippines

Discussion of the role of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) in efforts to reconcile the objectives of forest conservation and rural development has often been hampered by limited understanding of the complexity of the factors that affect the contribution of NTFPs to local livelihoods. By drawing upon two case studies where NTFPs play an important role - the municipality of Lepaterique in Honduras and Palawan Island in the Philippines - this study emphasizes that an ideal extractive system should be based on a mix of products to enable sustainable harvesting throughout the year. The study also demonstrates that considerable attention needs to be paid to the socio-cultural heterogeneity of resource users, and to the value chain structure, access and control over resources and political transparency that affect the opportunities for local people to benefit from NTFP extraction.     

The power of knowledge: information transfer and açaí intensification in the peri-urban interface of Belém,Brazil

Academic scholarship and development paradigms promote non-timber forest products (NTFPs) as potential options to link environmental conservation with sustainable economic development objectives for rural communities worldwide. The açaí berry (Euterpe oleracea) is a native palm found in forest ecosystems of northern Brazil and historically extracted and sold in regional markets. Recent increases in national and international açaí demand have resulted in dramatic price increases. Management decisions on a local producer level reflect trends not typically associated with traditional NTFPs as future production and income expectations increase. This case study draws on research conducted in peri-urban communities in close proximity to Belém, Brazil. The work draws links between recent açaí intensification trends in upland areas and information pathways that are contributing to this pattern. This paper argues that external information sources regarding land use choices are prioritized over local knowledge and market indicators which previously have been described as drivers for intensification processes of NTFPs. This qualitative analysis highlights the power structures that influence information sharing and in turn, land use choices on a community level. The results of this analysis are important for NTFP intervention initiatives focused on risk management for smallholders. Finally, this study is a useful complement for ecological studies currently being conducted on intensification processes of non-timber forest products.     

中葡非木质林产品认证标准比较

中国森林认证体系与葡萄牙森林认证体系均为PEFC认可的森林认证体系,中葡2国是通过PEFC认证的非木质林产品经营单位数量最多的2个国家。文中对中葡2国的森林认证体系、非木质林产品认证相关标准及认证程序进行了比较,发现2国认证体系在标准结构、认证程序、认证不符合项的整改时间、证书的有效期方面存在差异,但认证标准在内容上均有相对应的条款;研究结果可为中国森林认证体系的改进以及非木质林产品经营单位选择认证体系及认证机构提供参考。     

Demand for non-timber forest products: Surveys of urban consumers and sellers in Switzerland

In recent years, worldwide socioeconomic, ecological, and cultural changes have led to a paradigm shift in forestry and forest management. Some years ago, most forest enterprises exclusively focused on wood production, whereas today, forest management is expected to be multifunctional and economically as well as socially and ecologically sustainable [Harrison, S., Herbohn, J., Niskanen, A., 2002. Non-industrial, smallholder, small-scale and family forestry: what's in a name? Small-scale Forest Economics. Management and Policy 1 (1), 1–11; Schmithuesen, F., 2004. Forest policy developments in changing societies — political trends and challenges to research. Towards the sustainable use of Europe's forests: Forest ecosystems and landscape research: Joensuu: European Forest Institute, Proc., vol. 49, pp. 87–99]. In this context, non-timber forest products (NTFPs) such as forest honey, mushrooms, or berries could gain importance as an additional source of income for the forestry sector. To assess the market potential of NTFPs in Switzerland, two corresponding surveys were conducted. A consumer survey (N = 897) conducted in six cities in Switzerland investigated the purchase of Swiss NTFPs, consumer preferences, and demand potentials. An additional survey of sellers of NTFPs (N = 105) looked at these aspects from a complementary perspective. The results showed that there is a high esteem and considerable demand potential for such products among urban consumers. Food products were mentioned most frequently. Both consumers and sellers considered quality and environmental friendliness the most important attributes of NTFPs. Structural and organizational innovations and considerable marketing efforts and sales promotion would be required to expand the market for Swiss NTFP, however. Our results indicate that certification of the products' origin, environmental performance, and quality could support such efforts and that recreational and ecological forest services have a synergetic potential for the marketing of NTFPs.     

Participatory Research for Adaptive Ecosystem Management

Summary

Participatory research involves members of interested communities who work with researchers to apply their joint skills and experience to explore issues of mutual concern. There is an increasingly explicit federal mandate for participatory research efforts involving stakeholder groups in public land management. This paper presents a case study of one effort ongoing in the Hayfork Adaptive Management Area (AMA) on the Six Rivers and Shasta-Trinity national forests of northern California. There, a network of U.S. Forest Service staff, scientists, local nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and nontimber forest product harvesters (wildcrafters) has been working to address ecological, economic, and social aspects of harvesting nontimber forest products (NTFP) from public land. This paper discusses the challenges of NTFP management on public lands and analyzes participatory research as an approach for addressing some of these challenges.     

The Non-Timber Forest Products Sector in Nepal: Emerging Policy Issues in Plant Conservation and Utilization for Sustainable Development

The non-timber forest products (NTFPs) sector in Nepal is being promoted with the concept of sustainable development as articulated by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Traditionally, people have been dependent on NTFPs for subsistence; however, international trade is growing. To promote this sector, Nepal adopted the 2004 Herbs and NTFP Development Policy. Our goal is to assess the effectiveness of the policy along with the other forestry and natural resource policies in Nepal concerning the conservation and use of NTFPs. We conducted open-ended semi-structured interviews with 28 key informants in summer 2006 in Nepal and collected relevant documents and publications. Qualitative analyses of data yielded important issues that should be addressed to promote the sector as envisioned by the Government. The most important is the need for inventory and research on NTFP species in widespread use. There are some issues regarding species banned under various other National Acts; the lack of marketing information and capacity building; administrative barriers; royalty rates; and illegal harvesting. The most important immediate need is the development of an NTFP Strategy and Action Plan. Our findings should help further implement the policy and promote the sector along the stated mission of conservation and sustainable development.     

Research in Non-Timber Forest Products

Abstract

Summary Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) have emerged as a complex set of issues reflecting changes in society and how natural resources are regarded. These issues range from the sustainability of forest management practices to the relationship of diverse cultures and communities to public lands and their resources. Research and its relationship to this set of issues is a relatively unknown aspect of NTFPs.

This paper reports on early NTFP research by scientists in the USDA Forest Service's Pacific Northwest Research Station. It characterizes efforts over approximately five years and identifies their key elements. It also discusses the role research has and could play in addressing the problems and questions associated with NTFPs and sustainable forestry .     

Contribution of NTFPs to cash income of the War Khasi community of southern Meghalaya, North-East India

Ever since their emergence on this planet,human beings have depended on forest resources for their requirements,ranging from food,fuel to shelter.Sustainable extraction of forest resources has been promoted by conservationists and development agencies as a feasible strategy for forest dwellers,which does not diminish the resource base.Yet surveys of actual resource use suggest that for poorer resource-dependent communities without access to markets,non-timber forest products (NTFPs) can only act as a safetynet and a supplementary income source.In southern Meghalaya of India,NTFPs and medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) have become an important source of cash and subsistence income for poor people living in or near forests.People in this region have traditionally been collecting different forest products from private forests as well as community conserved forests.The study reveals that NTFPs contribute significantly towards the annual cash income of the local population.The contribution of NTFPs to their income was highest in the case of poor families (9.89%),followed by middle income families (3.34%) and the least for the higher income families (1.34%).Our household survey revealed that 100% of the population is directly or indirectly dependent on NTFPs.Household response indicates diversity in both the types and uses of products collected.     

The Kyoto Protocol and the Private Forest Policy of Local Governments in Japan

National government policies on preventing global warming are becoming increasingly important in Japan, especially since the Kyoto Protocol became effective in 2005, and the first commitment period began in 2008. The Forestry Agency has combined policies promoting domestic forestry with those to prevent global warming and has developed a 10-year action plan. However, the forest resource database and related statistics represent serious problems in the forest management system in Japan and in the administrative work of the prefectural governments that manage the database. The database contains much incorrect data, which is difficult to correct because of insufficient budget and staff. The budget problem has seriously affected the entire administrative section of the Forestry Agency since the 1990s. Environmental taxes related to forests have recently been introduced in many prefectures, although the total revenue generated is small. The basic problem with the database is that the National Land Survey is incomplete and, consequently, the forest land size information in the database is unreliable. Furthermore, because prefectural governments are not required to report statistics on timber harvests, the cutting volume in each municipality is uncertain. Considering this situation, it may be difficult for the private forest sector to contribute greatly to the Kyoto Protocol without changes in the forest management system by both national and prefectural governments.     

Rapid assessment of the value of forest income for people in Central Africa

Reliable data on the contribution of forests to the livelihoods of households in the Congo Basin are not always readily available to governments and decision-makers. This paper assesses the value of forest resources on livelihoods in Cameroon, Republic of Congo, Gabon, Central Africa Republic and the Democratic Republic of Congo. Data were collected using the Forest Poverty Linkages Toolkit, between 2012 and 2014 on stratified samples of 616 Bantu and indigenous people’s households in 15 villages. The study reveals that forest resources account for 48% to 63% of the total revenue of rural households. In Bantu households, estimates of the gross income from the forest per capita/day range from $US 0.18 to $US 1.3. This value is about double that received by indigenous people except in Congo. Non-cash income is about twice as high as cash income. On average, cash income reaches only about 23% of the World Bank $1.25 a day income level for chronic poverty. However, non-cash income - about twice as high as cash income – mitigates these profound poverty levels to some extent. The paper concludes by considering the importance of the findings for policy-making in Central Africa and the Congo Basin, and more widely. It is suggested that much more data of this kind is need to shape appropriate approaches to sustainable forest management, with a better understanding of the economic security and the livelihood resilience of the chronic poor increasingly kept in mind.     

Changing Consumption and Marketing pattern of Non-timber Forest Products in a Competitive World: case Study from an Urban Area of North-eastern Bangladesh

In the last decade non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and their associated goods have received much attention from researchers and development workers for their perceived socio-economic importance and potential, particularly in developing countries. It has been increasingly recognized that promoting the use, production and sustainable harvesting of such kinds of products could also contribute to forest conservation in the long run. However, since the development process has progressed in most regions, alternatives or substitutes of such products have become available on the markets, and it will be difficult for these nature-based products to exist without additional product values. A market survey was conducted in an urban fringe of north-eastern Bangladesh to investigate NTFP-based product diversity, and marketing patterns and challenges. Further information was collected from sellers and consumers to understand their views on probable future strategies to sustain the markets of these products. A total of 38 NTFP and NTFP-based secondary products were recorded from 25 NTFP shops, including 16 permanent, 7 temporary (or semi-permanent) and 2 mobile shops. The greatest demand was observed for bamboo and cane-based products, for which supply suffered due to the scarcity of raw materials. A decreasing trend in the consumption of NTFP-based articles for urban domestic use was also reported from the sellers. To cope with the competitive markets, sellers were found to place more emphasis on creative marketing, durability and appearance of their products. The study concluded that active government support is needed for the sustenance of this industry in a changing global perspective. This could be in the form of technical advancement in the production process, improvement of existing product supply chains and skill development of the workers which will not only secure the future of these products but also provide an essential means for the survival of this industry and for thousands of people living from it.     

Measuring Marketing Channel Efficiency and Strategy to Improve Income to Local Communities Dependent on Tropical Forests

Abstract

Quantification of channel efficiency in the marketing of non-timber forest products (NTFP) is essential for developing strategies to improve income to communities dependent on forests at existing harvest levels. A methodology for quantification of marketing channel efficiency is suggested. For illustrative purposes the method has been applied to a small sample of four NTFP gathered in twelve villages and the associated market functionaries in India. The NTFP gatherers' share in the consumer price and profit earned by a manufacturing unit from NTFP has been estimated. An attempt has been made to relate these two estimates to the marketing channel efficiency for the NTFP. An analysis of the marketing channel efficiency formulation shows that the operation cost in an organization is a constraint limiting the gatherers' share in the consumer price.