Patterns of Liana Abundance,Reproductive Traits and Liana-Tree Relationships in Relation to Forest Management in a Tropical Forest in Ghana

The study determined the impacts of three forest management regimes—logging treated (LT), tropical shelterwood system (TSS) treated, and untreated forest (UF)—on liana abundance, reproduction and climbing guilds, and liana-tree relationship patterns in the Asenanyo Forest Reserve, Ghana. The first two regimes involved liana cutting over 20 and 53 yr ago, respectively. Lianas and their hosts were sampled in 10 randomly demarcated plots (40 × 40 m²) in each regime. Liana abundance and infestation were significantly lower in the LT forest than the UF, whereas these attributes were comparable in the TSS treated and the UF. Overall, the patterns of liana reproduction and climbing guilds were similar in the treated and untreated forests. Tree diameter was positively and significantly correlated to liana load, basal area, and degree of colonization in the treated and untreated forests. Mean liana load was the same on different tree bark types in the forest management regimes. These findings suggest that the impact of liana cutting on liana abundance was still apparent in the LT forest but not in the TSS treated forest. Again, the impacts of liana cutting on patterns of liana reproduction and climbing guilds and liana-tree relationships were not noticeable in the treated forests.     

伊春铁力林业局水胡黄天然次生林植物物种组成及多样性分析

对水胡黄天然次生林的植物物种组成及多样性进行分析的结果表明:两个地点所有物种的共有度为0.681;通过调查,标准地中共记录植物物种60种,分别隶属于39科、54属,其中乔木16种、灌木14种(藤本2种)、草本30种;茂林河林场木本植物的物种多样性明显高于建设营林所,其丰富度指数为30,Shannon-Weiner指数达到2.602,均匀度指数为0.914,优势度指数为0.116;而且两个地点的乔木层的多样性指数明显高于灌木层的多样性指数。     

Impact of logging on tree,liana and herb assemblages in a Bornean forest

In the present study, the impact of logging was assessed on the forest structure, richness, and composition of trees, lianas, and ground herbs in Indonesian Borneo. There were no significant differences in tree height, diameter, basal area, or abundance between unlogged and logged forest. Liana abundance was higher in logged than unlogged forest, but the difference was marginally nonsignificant. There was also no significant difference in the percentage cover of ground herbs. Tree species richness was similar between unlogged and logged forest, while liana species richness was higher in logged forest and herb species richness between unlogged forest. Tree and liana compositions differed significantly between unlogged and logged forest, but logging explained only a small part (<7%) of the variance in composition. In contrast to trees and lianas, ground herb composition did not differ significantly between unlogged and logged forest. Our findings indicate that the modest extraction intensity practiced did not have a severely adverse impact on forest structure or plant composition. This highlights the important role that logged forests may play in conserving biodiversity and the need to protect these forests from further disturbance.     

Woody species composition and structure of Kuandisha afromontane forest fragment in northwestern Ethiopia

To investigate the woody species composition,diversity and structure of Kuandisha Afromontane forest,vegetation and environmental data were collected from 53 plots of 10 m 9 50 m for trees and shrubs and 265 subplots of 2 m 9 4 m for seedlings were laid along eight transect lines. The local name, scientific name, abundance,DBH, height and percentage foliage cover of species were recorded. Environmental variables, namely altitude, latitude and longitude as well as disturbance levels were also recorded in each plot. Structure, basal area, importance value index(IVI) and species prioritization were analyzed using spreadsheet programs. Correlation coefficients, frequency, relative frequency, Shannon diversity index,Shannon evenness and vegetation classification were analyzed using an R package. Sixty-six species belonging to40 families were recorded. Fabaceae was the most diverse family consisting of seven species, followed by Euphorbiaceae and Asteraceae. In terms of habit, 29 species were trees, 28 were shrubs, and 9 were lianas. The overall Shannon diversity index was 2.5. The frequency and relative frequency of woody species with DBH C2.5 cm ranged from 1.9 to 92.5 and 0.1 to 5, respectively. Seedling density varied among species ranging from five to 9938 individuals ha-1. The total basal area of woody species having DBH C2.5 cm is 15.3 m2ha-1. The IVI of species ranged from 0.13 for Solanum giganteum Jacq. to 28.4 for Croton macrostachyus Del. The woody vegetation was classified into five community types. Species richness,diversity and evenness of communities were strongly positively correlated. On the other hand, the correlation between disturbance and seedling density, and species richness was strongly negative. Thus, among the recorded woody species, a significant portion was either lacking regeneration or selectively removed for various purposes.The lack of seedlings of those species is mainly attributed to anthropogenic disturbances particularly free grazing. As a result, 14 tree, seven shrub and one liana species were prioritized for conservation and management interventions.     

Liana species richness,abundance and relationship with trees in the Bobiri forest reserve,Ghana: Impact of management systems

Forest management practices which may represent various forms of disturbance regimes could influence liana species richness, abundance and relationship with their hosts. The study sought to determine the impacts of three management systems, namely, the Selection, Tropical Shelterwood and Post Exploitation Systems (SS, TSS and PES respectively) on liana species richness, abundance and relationship with trees in the Bobiri forest reserve, Ghana. Lianas with dbh ≥ 2 cm found on trees with dbh ≥ 10 cm were enumerated in 1 ha plot each in the SS, TSS and PES. All trees (dbh ≥ 10 cm) within the plots that did not carry lianas were also enumerated. A total of 640 liana individuals belonging to 27 species, 22 genera and 13 families were identified in the management systems. Griffonia simplicifolia (Vahl ex DC.) Baill., Motandra guineensis (Thonn.) A.DC. and Calycobolus africanus (G.Don) Heine were the abundant species in all the management systems. Unlike in SS, lianas in the TSS and PES were dominated by a few species. Larger diameter lianas were more abundant in the PES (32%) compared with the SS (18.3%) and the PES (13.1%). Liana diversity (H′) (species richness and abundance) was quantitatively higher in the SS (2.8) than the TSS (2.2) and the PES (2.0). The numbers of lianas carried by tree species differed significantly in the management systems (p < 0.001 each). Liana infestation in the forest was high. The level of liana infestation did not reflect the extent of liana load per tree in the management systems. Larger trees carried significantly more liana individuals than smaller trees in the PES (p = 0.019, r² = 0.15). There was a positive significant relationship between host dbh and liana dbh in the PES (p < 0.001, r² = 0.23) and TSS (p = 0.024, r² = 0.11). Tree diversity appeared to have influenced liana species richness and abundance.     

大兴安岭天然白桦林群落结构特征及其物种多样性

基于2011年大兴安岭地区的样地调查数据,分别用大小比数、混交度和角尺度来衡量林分空间结构特征;用Simpson生态优势度指数、Margalef丰富度指数、Shannon多样性指数以及Pielou均匀度指数来衡量群落的物种多样性水平。研究结果表明：随着白桦优势度的提高,群落的物种多样性、丰富度和均匀度指数均显著下降;从林分的空间结构特征来看,混交林的水平分布格局呈随机分布,林分的混交程度高,林木的生长水平整体处于中庸状态;各项指标均表明,白桦混交林具有较高的物种多样性和群落的稳定性,对白桦林向松桦混交林过渡的群落演替趋势研究有重要意义。     

海南霸王岭陆均松类热带山地雨林伐后林结构与物种多样性研究

霸王岭林区是海南岛最典型的热带山地雨林分布区.在该区,现存分布面积最广、资源数量最大的是热带山地雨林的各种伐后林.以霸王岭分布最广的以陆均松(Dacridium pierrii)为主的山地雨林的伐后林为对象,研究了其组成、径级、高度结构和物种多样性特征,对比分析了伐后林与原始林以及伐后林不同类型之间的异同.结果表明:原始热带山地雨林经采伐后中小乔木和灌木的优势度增大,而大乔木树种的优势度则明显下降.阳性树种的种类、数量和相对重要性随采伐破坏的程度而增加.伐后林中矮、小树木在林分中比例随采伐破坏的程度增加,而高、大树木,特别是进入主林层树木的比例则随采伐破坏的程度明显下降.从林分测树因子的变化来看,采育择伐和径级择伐的林分要优于大强度择伐和皆伐的林分.原始林的物种丰富度大于伐后林,但其多样性指数和均匀度指数大都小于伐后林.组成上与原始林相似性较大的伐后林是各种择伐后的林分,而皆伐后的林分与原始林在组成上已有很大差别.     

Effects of Different Management Practices on Stand Composition and Species Diversity in Subtropical Forests in Nepal: Implications of Community Participation in Biodiversity Conservation

In this article, we compared the structure, composition, and diversity of trees, shrubs and saplings, seedlings and herbaceous species of community- and government-managed forests in the lowlands of eastern Nepal. Results suggest that among the trees, the community forest was dominated by a single species, Shorea robusta. However, Shorea robusta and Terminalia myriocarpa were codominant in the government forest. Tree density and basal area were higher in the government forest, but shrub/sapling density and basal area were higher in the community forest, suggesting a positive effect of community management on tree regeneration. Overstory species assemblages showed an obvious compositional difference between the forests, but understory species assemblages were less obvious. Plot-level tree and shrub/sapling species richness was higher in the government forest than the community forest. However, seedling-herbaceous species richness was higher in the community forest. The dominance of Shorea robusta trees in the community forest suggests that people involved in managing forests may be more interested in a limited number of economically valuable species while removing less important trees. Such preferential management practices may increase resource heterogeneity within a forest and maintain species diversity in the understory. Thus, community participation in forest management should be encouraged, with guided management techniques and exercises, to achieve maximum forest recovery, provide sustainable ecosystem services, and maintain forest diversity.     

Effects of multiple factors on plant diversity of forest fragments in intensive farmland of Northern Portugal

The joint and independent effects of dominant tree species, forest patch spatial attributes, and forest structure and management as drivers of plant species richness and composition in small forest patches scattered within an intensive agricultural landscape were addressed.In a landscape with scattered urban and intensive dairy agricultural areas in north-west Portugal, within which small forest patches (dominated by pines, eucalypts, or both) represent semi-natural habitat islands, 50 small forest patches, with areas ranging between 0.3 and 3 ha, were selected and surveyed for vascular plant diversity, within dairy farming landscape mosaics dominated by annual forage crops. Explanatory variables were composed of three datasets derived either from GIS mapping or field observations: forest type (dominant tree species), forest patch spatial attributes (patch area and shape index), and measures of forest management and structure (diameter at breast height, tree density per hectare, and percentage cover of vegetation strata). Variations in these forest patch attributes were assessed across forest types, and related to measures of plant diversity (total, native, alien, woody, and herbaceous species richness). Redundancy analysis with variance partitioning was applied to evaluate the joint and independent effects of the three sets of variables on species assemblages. The recent shift in canopy dominance from pine to eucalypt observed in the region appears to be related to a (nonsignificant) tendency for the increase of patch area and to the decrease of patch complexity, as well as several changes in forest structure and management, expressed as a trend to denser tree canopies and lower cover of understory plants. Dominant tree species and attributes related to forest structure and management were the most important factors determining plant diversity. The joint effect of the dominant tree species and forest structure and management resulted in lower levels of plant species richness in eucalypt plantations. These were also more prone to invasion by alien species, probably due to decreased biotic resistance from unsaturated native plant assemblages. Our results draw attention to the importance of dominant tree species and management practices for the maintenance of plant diversity levels (species richness and composition) in dairy landscape mosaics, highlighting the importance of the remnants of semi-natural forests as refuges for plant diversity in the landscape context. Nonetheless, forest plant diversity could further be fostered by promoting naturalness of pine stands and the regeneration of native oak woodlands in some forest areas. This would also diversify the range of ecosystem services that could be provided by forest areas in these peri-urban farmlands.     

Recovery of secondary forests on swidden cultivation fallows in Laos

Species composition, structure and diversity of secondary forests recovered on abandoned swidden cultivation fields in the lowland of Laos were studied in relation to distance from the natural forest, fallow age and crop-fallow rotation cycle. All woody species with stem diameter ≥1 cm were identified, counted and their diameter at breast height (1.3 m, dbh) measured on 290 plots in 162 swidden fallows. Distance from the forest edge related non-linearly and explained 46%, 54%, 63% and 52% of the variation in species richness, stem density, basal area and Simpson's index, respectively. The basal area of secondary forests increased significantly (p < 0.0001) while stem density tended to decrease (0.05 < p < 0.1) with increasing fallow age, whereas species richness and diversity measures remained insensitive. Species richness, stem density, basal area and Shannon-Wiener index were reduced by 28%, 35%, 72% and 23%, respectively while the number of bamboo clumps increased significantly by 45% as the crop-fallow rotation cycle increased from one to three. The occurrence of bamboo had a negative effect on most of the vegetation characteristics analyzed. From forest production and biodiversity conservation viewpoints, it is recommended that the natural regeneration in fallows with a history of previous severe land use intensity should be supplemented with enrichment planting irrespective of its distance from the natural forest. Although the management objectives for secondary forests on swidden fallows are not clearly set, promoting the development of bamboo forests in fallows would be one management option, given its importance in rural livelihood.     

胡家林场天然林早春植物多样性的研究

本文对胡家林场天然林早春植物多样性进行研究,结果显示：科、属和物种的丰富度指数和Shannon—Wiener多样性指数逐年降低;优势度升高。物种丰富度指数和Shannon—Wiener多样性指数明显差异大,而生态优势度D变化不明显。     

Changes in species composition and diversity in the restoration process of sub-alpine dark brown coniferous forests in western Sichuan Province, China

By adopting the concept of space as a substitute for time, we analyzed the dynamics of species composition and diversity of different restoration sequences (20, 30, 40, 50 years) in two secondary forest types in western Sichuan Province, distributed in a northerly or northwesterly direction. The analysis was based on the results of measurements of 50 plots located at elevations between 3100–3600 m. The forests originated from natural regeneration in combination with reforestation of spruce when the old-growth bamboo-dark brown coniferous forests and moss-dark brown coniferous old growth forests were harvested. Similar old-growth dark brown coniferous forests at ages ranging between 160 and 200 years were selected as the reference forests for comparisons. We recorded 167 species of vascular plants from 44 families and 117 genera. There was no significant difference in terms of the number of species among secondary forests. But the importance values of dominant species varied during the restoration processes. The dominant species in the secondary forests is Betula albo-sinensis, while Abies faxoniana is the dominant species in old-growth dark brown coniferous forests. Species richness increased significantly with restoration processes. It increased quickly in secondary forests during the period from 30 to 40 years, but decreased significantly in the old-growth dark brown coniferous forests. The species richness among growth forms decreased in the following order: herb layer > shrub layer > tree layer. The maximum value of the evenness index occurred in secondary forests at age 40 and remained relatively stable in the bamboo-birch forests, but the evenness index tended to decrease in moss-birch forests and slightly increased in the old-growth mossdark brown coniferous forests. There was a statistically significant difference in the eveness index between the tree and shrub layers as well as between the tree layer and the herb layer, but there was no significant difference between the shrub layer and the herb layer. The value of the Shannon index increased over restoration time. In bamboo-birch forests, the maximum value of the Shannon index was 3.80, recorded at age 50. In moss-birch forests, the maximal value was 3.65, reached in this forest at age 30. The value of the Shannon index of old-growth dark brown coniferous forests was recorded between younger secondary and older secondary forests. The value of the dominance index of communities varied. At the first stage of restoration, it increased, and at the end it was decreased. The dominance index of the tree layer had a similar trend as that of the community dominance index, but was more variable. The minimum value of the dominance index of the tree layer in the moss-birch forests reached 20 years earlier than that of the bamboo-birch forests. There was a significant difference among restoration sequences in the α diversity indices except for the dominance index. No significant differences between the two secondary forest types were detected. Over age, the value of the Bray-Curtis index between secondary forest and old-growth dark brown coniferous forest increased. __________ Translated from Scientia Silvae Sinicae, 2007, 43(5): 17–23 [译自: 林业科学]     

Patterns of liana diversity in tropical evergreen forests of peninsular India

The quantitative liana inventories made in five peninsular Indian independent forest sites, distributed in the Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats and on the Coromandel coast, were examined particularly with reference to site altitude and forest stature. Liana diversity totaled 148 species in 101 genera of 47 families, in a total sample of 47 ha. The coefficient of variability in species distribution among the five sites was used to identify an oligarchy in liana species by taking 55 abundant species from the species pool. Ordination analysis, based on presence–absence as well as relative density of liana species indicated a geographical differentiation among the five sites in both the ordinations with respect to site altitude. Liana density (stems>1.6 cm diameter) decreased with increasing altitude, whereas richness was highest at intermediate elevations. The mean liana density across the forest sites showed a weak negative correlation with forest stature. The lianas encountered in the five study sites fell under six climber types, of which twining was the chief climbing mechanism, both in terms of species diversity and density, and tendril climbers were more abundant in dry evergreen forests than in the wet evergreen forests. In liana diaspore dispersal modes, the majority of evergreen forest species possessed animal dispersal guilds, whereas wind-dispersal was prevalent in semi-evergreen and dry evergreen forests.     

Selective cutting of woody species in a Mexican tropical dry forest: Incompatibility between use and conservation

A major challenge of forest management is to maintain the biodiversity and integrity of the forests while at the same time satisfying human needs through productive activities. While selective extraction of natural resources has less severe consequences on biodiversity and ecosystem function than complete removal of vegetation, such consequences need to be evaluated in detail. “Varas” or stems cut from small trees of tropical dry forests (TDF) in the Pacific Coast of Mexico have been used as plant support stakes in horticultural fields (mainly tomato crops) since the middle of the last century. In this study, we evaluated the effects of selective cutting of plant support stakes on the diversity of woody vegetation of a TDF in northwestern Mexico. Stakes were cut by local harvesters before our assessment of cutting effects. In each of three cutting treatments (T₀ = uncut, T₁ = one cut event, and T₂ = two cut events), we established three sampling plots each consisting of ten 50 m × 2 m parallel transects. All woody plants (stems ≥1.0 cm diameter at 1.3 m height, DBH) were identified and measured on each transect. Species richness (S) decreased as the number of cuts increased (T₀ = 65 species, T₁ = 50 species, and T₂ = 38 species). The Simpson (C) and the Shannon (H′) diversity indices, as well as the rarefaction curves and non-parametric estimates of diversity (Chao1 and ACE) confirmed this tendency of change. Comparison of dominance–diversity curves showed that the woody plant community loses equitability with every additional stake cutting event. The total number of stake providing species did not vary notably across treatments (T₀ = 8 species, T₁ = 9 species, and T₂ = 7 species), but four species reduced their dominance considerably in T₂, while Croton septemnervius, the most used species, increased its abundance and relative basal area with each additional stake harvest, reaching a representation of more than 59% of total number of stems in T₂. The reduction in species diversity, changes in patterns of dominance, and the proliferation of species associated to disturbed sites suggest that current practices of selective cutting require adjustments to make this forest management application more consistent with local conservation of woody plant species diversity and community structure.     

Lianas and self-supporting plants during tropical forest succession

Lianas (woody vines) are an important component of tropical forests, with a strong impact on forest dynamics, but their responses during forest succession have received relatively little attention. Here, we present an analysis of the changes in stem density, biomass, and species richness of lianas and self-supporting plants during tropical forest succession. We surveyed lianas ≥0.5 cm diameter at breast height (dbh) and self-supporting plants ≥2.5 cm dbh in 0.1 ha inventory plots in a chronosequence of 30 sites in northeastern Costa Rica, 23 sites on abandoned pastures 10–44 years of age, and seven sites in old-growth forest. Stem density of self-supporting plants showed no predictable chronosequence trend, but liana stem density declined significantly with forest age. Aboveground biomass of self-supporting vegetation increased rapidly during succession, with forests 31–44 years exhibiting higher levels of biomass than old-growth forests. Liana biomass accumulated more slowly, with the highest levels in old-growth sites. Species richness of self-supporting vegetation increased significantly during succession, but species richness of lianas showed no change or a slight decline with forest age, depending on the method of assessment. The differences between tree and liana responses during succession stem from the unique physiology and life history traits of lianas.     

Plant diversity at Chilapatta reserve forest of Terai Duars in sub-humid tropical foothills of Indian eastern Himalayas

From March 2007 to March 2009 we quantified plant diversity at Chilapatta Reserve Forest in Terai Duars in the Indian eastern Himala-yas. We sampled stratified random nested quadrats. Species richness was 311, representing 167 genera and 81 families. The species diversity index and concentration of dominance of the forest were 2.20 and 0.0072, respectively. Shannon-Wiener index and evenness indices were 4.77 and 1.44, respectively. The Importance Value Index （IVI） of species ranged from 0.13 to 37.94. The estimated diversity indices indicated heterogene-ity of the forest in its composition, structure, function and dynamics. Rich forest plant diversity supports the need for continued conservation of tropical forests.     

Diversity of woody plant species and their relationship to physiographic factors in central Zagros forests (Case study: Perc forest,Khorramabad, Iran)

Topography is the most factor that has the greatest impact of all factor that affect the distribution.To study the diversity of trees and shrub species in the Perc forest situated in Khorramabad,Lorestan,140 circular plots of 1200 m~2 in a grid of 300 m 9 250 m were surveyed,using a systematic random sampling method.In each plot,the Margalef richness index,Shannon–Wiener diversity index,Hill's N_1 and Simpson indices and the evenness index of Simpson and Smith-Wilson were calculated and ordered on the basis of different classes of elevation,exposition and slope.The results indicated that slope did not have any significant effect on the indices.Exposition and elevation classes significant impacted the richness and diversity indices,but did not influence evenness.In general,the highest plant diversity was observed for slopes less than 15 %,northern aspects,without geographical direction,and elevations of 2100–2200 m.This information can be very useful in achieving the goals for sustainable management of forests.In addition to greater protection for regions with high diversity and reforestation(compatible species) in degraded area,we can help increase diversity in forests.     

3种改造方式对深圳龙岗区生态风景林植物多样性影响

通过样方调查,对深圳市龙岗区生态风景林中的未改造低效林、天然次生林及3种改造林分（林下套种林、皆伐林、疏伐林）的植物多样性进行对比分析,了解不同改造措施对林分植物多样性的影响.结果表明：各类型林分的物种丰富度排序为林下套种林＞皆伐林=天然林＞疏伐林＞未改造林;经过3种方式改造后林分乔木层的Shannon-Wiener指数、Simpson指数、Pielou指数皆高于未改造低效林和天然次生林,其中Shannon-Wiener指数和Pielou指数均以林下套种林最高,其次是皆伐林,Simpson指数以皆伐林最高,林下套种林次之;改造后林分灌草层的物种多样性指数均高于未改造林,其中皆伐林物种多样性指数均高于天然次生林.综合比较疏伐、皆伐和林下套种3种改造方式对生态风景林群落植物多样性的影响,疏伐是较适宜本地区生态风景林改造的措施.     

Long-term ecological impacts of clear-fell logging on tree species diversity in a subtropical forest,southern Japan

Defining the spatial arrangement and length of the cutting cycle in a logged area is crucial for reconciling potential conflicts between timber yields and maintenance of ecosystem services in natural forests. In this study, we investigated long-term impacts of clear-fell logging on timber production and tree species diversity in a subtropical forest on the Ryukyu Islands, using an individual-based simulation model. We assumed six logging scenarios defined by combinations of forest type and regeneration processes, which acted as surrogates for spatial scales of clear-fell logging. These scenarios were simulated under cutting cycles ranging from 20 to 150 years. Short-cutting cycles resulted in dominance by the sprouting species Castanopsis sieboldii. The compositional shift was accelerated by the lack of seed dispersal from surrounding forest areas. The simulations demonstrated that a sustainable logging regime maintaining both yield and tree species diversity requires a cutting cycle longer than 50 years. The simulation results also suggest that the trade-off between the recovery of tree species diversity and timber production is favored more in stands surrounded by mature forest than in isolated stands or stands surrounded by immature forest. Ecological risk assessments based on model simulations provide an alternative to current forest management practices that rely on empirical knowledge.     

Breeding bird community composition in different successional vegetation in the montane coniferous forests zone of Taiwan

To examine the relationship between forest succession following fire and the composition of bird communities, we investigated the vegetation structure, bird population density, foraging behavior and guild structure in bamboo grasslands (11 years since the last fire), pine savanna (41 years), pine woodland (58 years), old-growth hemlock forest (never burned), and old-growth spruce forest (never burned) in the Tatachia area of central Taiwan. Canopy height, total foliage cover, tree density, total basal area of tree, total basal area of snags, foliage height diversity, and tree species richness all increased with successional age. However, shrub cover peaked in intermediate successional stages. The vertical profile of foliage cover was more diverse in later successional forests, which had more breeding bird species and ecological guilds. All the breeding bird species recorded in early and intermediate stages were also found distributed in the late successional forests. Because Taiwan has high precipitation and humidity, and most forest fires in Taiwan are caused by human activities, forest fires and large areas of early successional vegetation were probably rare in the mountain areas of Taiwan prior to the arrival of humans. Therefore, bird species have not had enough time to adapt to areas with early or intermediate successional vegetation. Moreover, late successional forests host all the major plant species found in the early and intermediate stages and have higher foliage height diversity index, which was positively correlated with the bird species richness and bird species diversity index in this study. As a result, all breeding bird species and guilds in the area can be found in late successional forests. Efforts for conserving avian diversity in Taiwan should focus on protecting the remaining native old-growth forests.