Effects of participatory forest management on livelihood capitals of the community in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh

In Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, we surveyed 80 households to observe the effects of participatory forestry (PF) on the livelihood of local participants. We analyzed the effects on livelihood capitals to compare in two ways: (1) before and after participation, and (2) participants and non-participants. In Cox’s Bazar, there were some significant changes regarding income sources, but annual income was little changed after participation in participatory forestry. Literacy (about 10 % after participation) and mobile phone ownership (75 %) were significantly higher than before. Housing conditions were better (brick walls: 7.5 %; sun-grass roof: 70 %) than those of non-participants (brick walls: 0 %; sun-grass roof: 77.5 %). PF ensured legal rights on forest lands for participants, while non-participants were illegally living on public forestland. However, expenses were considerably higher than income; people were still struggling with poverty and many of them suffered from malnutrition. This ultimately put pressure on all capital. People had redistributed their available capital to cope with adversity, and there was a trend toward involvement in economic activities other than forests. Our study found that social capital was more influenced by PF more than other capitals. Due to the involvement with the PF program, people were feeling much more secure, women had elevated status, and social relationships became stronger.     

Contribution of Small-Scale Agroforestry Systems to Carbon Pools and Fluxes: A Case Study from Middle Hills of Nepal

In view of the heavy people’s dependence (80 %) on various forms of land-based resources, carbon sequestration should not only be targeted in forests, but also on private land agroforestry. A survey was conducted in 2011 to investigate the gap in contribution of agroforestry carbon to the household economy in the middle hills region of Rasuwa district of Nepal. A total of 120 households were randomly selected and surveyed, of which eight were further examined for detailed tree carbon measurement. It is estimated that a total of 48.60 ton C per hectare has been stocked in agroforestry sites in the middle hills region. Assuming a carbon price of $US12/ton, the total potential income from carbon sequestration per household would amount to NPR 45,490/ha in 20 years of agroforestry if a payment scheme were introduced. The income from carbon sequestration is quite low compared with other agroforestry income. Policy implications are thus oriented towards farmers reaping multiple benefits from the existing international mechanisms by having negotiations based on contribution of all agroforestry components (farm trees, crops and animals) rather than limited to forest carbon stock. To benefit from these multiple functions of farms and forests, the policy framework to address the climate-related affects and risks (e.g., of landslides, burst of Himalayan lakes) should be broad enough to produce potential synergy between the negative effect of climate change and agroforestry income.     

Small-scale agroforestry for upland community development: a case study from Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh

The potentialities of agroforestry are generally investigated through their biophysiological phenomena, cost–benefit analysis, and possible impact upon poverty reduction. There have been inadequate studies on the actual impacts of agroforestry intervention on small landholders and of farmers' attitudes toward these agroforestry programs. Drawing upon the findings of an empirical study, this article explores the effects of small-scale agroforestry on upland community development in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh. More specifically, the study clarifies the merits and demerits of different agroforestry systems as perceived by farmers, their impacts on the rural economy and the environment, farmers' attitudes toward the adoption of agroforestry, and impacts of various government policies. Field data were collected by administering questions to 90 randomly selected smallholders of the Upland Settlement Project (USP), as well as from project staff. The research tools employed were semistructured interviews, group discussions, and uncontrolled observations. The results indicated that the agroforestry interventions have in fact increased farmers' income through employment and the selling of farm products, as well as by improving the ecological conditions of these areas through reduction of soil erosion, increasing tree coverage, and maintaining soil fertility. The adoption of different agroforestry systems was governed mainly by the farmers' interests in following these techniques, their ability to cultivate the land in the prescribed manner, and the market demand for their products. The major obstacles that prevented increased agroforestry improvements included lack of confidence in new land-use systems, inappropriate project design (e.g., top-down innovation approach), and policy issues regarding land tenure. Recommendations are proposed to strengthen social capital in local organizations to enhance the livelihoods of the upland communities.     

Livelihood Improvements Through Agroforestry: Evidence from Northern Bangladesh

Agroforestry is one of the most sustainable land management systems practiced around the world due to the socioeconomic benefits that it brings to farmers. In Bangladesh, farmers practice agroforestry, applying indigenous knowledge. The present study was designed to identify the present status, management practices and its role in improving the livelihoods of farmers in northern Bangladesh. Data for the study were collected through quantitative and qualitative methods. A total of 29 tree and 38 agricultural crop species were planted by the102 farmers interviewed. Mangifera indica (relative prevalence 49%) is the most predominant species, followed by Eucalyptus camaldulensis (relative prevalence 35.4%). Farmers of northern Bangladesh plant trees in cropland for fruits (90%), fuel wood (87%) and timber production (79%). Fruit trees were planted with wider spacing while forest and fuel wood species were planted with narrower spacing. Farmer’s livelihoods improved enormously by practicing agroforestry as they have more access to food, fodder and fuel wood which is reflected by greater access to livelihood capitals (except social capital). However, farmers have experienced increased incidences of pests and diseases to the annual crops and trees. Agroforestry practices increases species diversity, ensure economic return and sustain farmer’s livelihoods.     

Microbial community diversity in agroforestry and grass vegetative filter strips

Vegetative filter strips (VFS) have long been promoted as a soil conservation practice that yields many additional environmental benefits. Most previous studies have focused primarily on the role of vegetation and/or soil physical properties in these ecosystem services. Few studies have investigated the soil microbial community of VFS. Therefore, we examined potential differences in soil microbial community characteristics of claypan soil planted to VFS with differing vegetation and a traditional row-crop system in a maize–soybean rotation. Samples were tested for soil microbial function and community structure using dehydrogenase and fluorescein diacetate (FDA) hydrolysis enzyme assays and phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) analysis, respectively. The grass VFS soil exhibited the greatest dehydrogenase activity levels and FDA activity was greater in the grass and agroforestry (i.e., tree–grass) VFS soils relative to the cropland soil. The PLFA analysis revealed community structural differences underlying these functional differences. The agroforestry VFS soil was characterized by a greater proportion of total bacteria, gram-negative bacteria, anaerobic bacteria and mycorrhizal fungi than the cropland soil. The grass VFS soil shared some characteristics with the cropland soils; but the grass VFS supported greater mycorrhizal fungi and protozoa populations. This work highlights differences in soil microbial function and community structure in VFS relative to cropland soil 12 years post VFS establishment. It also enhances our fundamental knowledge regarding soil microorganisms in VFS, which may aid in explaining some ecosystem services provided by VFS (e.g., decomposition of organic agrichemicals).     

Agroforestry adoption and maintenance: self-efficacy, attitudes and socio-economic factors

Agroforestry is a key land use in the development of ecological corridors in tropical rainforests biomes. This research tested the social dimensions of agroforestry adoption and maintenance in the Atlantic rainforest of Southern Bahia, Brazil. A quasi-experiment research design compared a group of farmers who participated in an agroforestry development program with a group of similar farmers who were not participants in the program. The effects of the program on the participants’ self-efficacy, attitudes and intentions to adopt or maintain agroforestry were tested. The effects of socio-economic factors and attitudes were also compared to self-efficacy in terms of farmers’ intentions to adopt or maintain agroforestry. Results indicate that the program neither raised nor lowered the farmers’ attitudes, self-efficacy or intentions to adopt or maintain agroforestry. However, multiple regression and logistic model analyses indicate that perceived behavioral control, attitudes about conservation and available labor contributed most significantly to farmers’ intentions to adopt or maintain agroforestry. Overall, perceived behavioral control proved to have the most significant correlation with farmers’ intentions to adopt or maintain agroforestry. Therefore, agroforestry development programs could benefit from focusing on farmers’ perceived control of certain behaviors to enhance the persistence of agroforestry practices.     

Agroforestry systems in the rural landscape – a case study in Garhwal Himalaya, India

A mid altitude (700–1200 m amsl.) village in Garhwal Himalaya was analysed in terms of energy and economic efficiency of different land use-land cover types constituting the landscape. Simultaneous agroforestry, sequential agroforestry, home garden and community forests accounted for 27.47%, 27.47%, 1.1% and 43.96% of the total geographical area of the village. Simultaneous agroforestry is the traditional land use involving substantial input of manure derived from forest litter and animal excreta and was practised on terraced slopes in private ownership. Tree cover in this system was represented by nine species with total average density of 390 trees ha⁻¹, Grewia optiva and Boehmeria rugulosa being the most dominant. Sequential agroforestry system involving slash-burn practice and cultivation on unterraced slopes without tillage and manuring was an illicit land use on community lands where forestry land use is desirable as per the government policy. Per ha annual energy input in simultaneous agroforestry system was 305267 MJ compared to 279 MJ in sequential agroforestry and 27047 MJ in home garden. In monetary terms, highest per ha annual output was obtained from simultaneous agroforestry (Rs 25370, Rs 35 = US$1) followed by home garden (Rs 18200) and sequential agroforestry (Rs 9426). Local food, fodder and fuelwood production was in excess of the local consumption. While most of the surplus food was stored, surplus fodder and fuelwood were sold for cash. Production in simultaneous agroforestry system in private lands was sustained with substantial biomass and nutrient inputs from the community and government forests. Land use-land cover changes in the region are driven by the interaction of ecological, policy and human factors. It is concluded that present policy of treating forests and agriculture as closed and independent ecological or production systems needs to be replaced by an integrated land use policy. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Agroforestry and grass buffer effects on water quality in grazed pastures

Conservation practices including agroforestry and grass buffers are believed to reduce nonpoint source pollution (NPSP) from pastured watersheds. Agroforestry, a land management practice that intersperses agricultural crops with trees, has recently received increased attention in the temperate zone due to its environmental and economic benefits. However, studies are limited that have examined buffer effects on the quality of water from grazed pastures. Six treatment areas, two with agroforestry buffers, two with grass buffers, and two control treatments were used to test the hypothesis that agroforestry and grass buffers can be used to effectively reduce NPSP from pastured watersheds. Vegetation in grass buffer and pasture areas includes red clover (Trifolium pretense L.) and lespedeza (Kummerowia stipulacea Maxim.) planted into fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.). Eastern cottonwood trees (Populus deltoides Bortr. ex Marsh.) were planted into fescue in agroforestry buffers. Soils at the site are mostly Menfro silt loam (fine-silty, mixed, superactive, mesic Typic Hapludalfs). Treatments were instrumented with two-foot H flumes, water samplers, and flow measuring devices in 2001. Composite water samples were analyzed for sediment and total nitrogen after each runoff event to compare treatment differences. Treatments with agroforestry and grass buffers had significantly lower runoff volumes as compared to the control. The loss of sediment and total nitrogen were smaller for the buffered treatments. The results of this study suggest that establishment of agroforestry and grass buffers help reduce NPSP pollution from pastured watersheds. It is anticipated as trees grow and roots occupy more soil volume, the reduction in N in runoff will increase on the agroforestry watershed.     

The use and value of multiple methods to capture the diversity of endogenous agroforestry knowledge: an example from Rwanda

To understand endogenous agroforestry knowledge and the processes behind the generation of such knowledge, multiple methods are needed. In this paper, the identification and characterization of farmer agroforestry experts will illustrate the necessity of multiple methods. Nonformal, participatory methods were employed to identify the research subjects (farmer agroforestry experts) and to gain insights into the emic conception and understanding of ‘knowledge’ and ‘agroforestry’. An adaptation of the wealth ranking game was used to determine (1) the research subjects using locally defined criteria of ‘being knowledgeable about agroforestry’, and (2) how this knowledge is distributed within a community. Additional information, approaching the subject from an etic perspective, was gathered using formal surveys to collect socioeconomic data and to make an inventory of all trees and tree species. Study results indicate that exclusive reliance on either emic or etic perspectives would not have yielded satisfactory results, as there is a differentiation in agroforestry knowledge and agroforestry systems between different groups of farmers. It is, therefore, recommended that future studies of endogenous knowledge systems combine qualitative and quantitative, participatory and formal data collection methods as they provide complementary and supplementary perspectives on a complex reality.     

Agroforestry systems reduce invasive species richness and diversity in the surroundings of protected areas

The Serra do Brigadeiro State Park (PESB) is one of the largest fragments of Brazilian Atlantic Rainforest, and it is relevant for native species conservation. However, monocultures settled around the Park resulted in extensive open areas that facilitate the establishment of alien species on the PESB perimeter, which may threaten native species conservation therein, since biological invasion is the second main cause of global biodiversity loss. In this region, there are also farmers planting agroforestry systems (AFS), characterized by tree-based intercropping, which are structurally more similar to the Atlantic Rainforest reminiscent fragments present in the region and may limit local occurrence of potentially invasive exotic weeds for several reasons, such as the high levels of shade provided by trees, the groundcover that result from loss of tree leaves and the increased competition for belowground resources. This study aimed to test whether AFS limit exotic species establishment when compared to monoculture systems. Accordingly, three coffee monocultures and three agroforestry coffee plantations around the PESB were studied. In each of the six study areas, 30 plots of 1 m² were established between the lines of coffee plantation, where all species present were surveyed. In both treatments, rarefaction curves were constructed to evaluate native and exotic richness, and diversity of these two categories was estimated through Simpson index inverse (1/D). All 13 sampled exotic species were present in monocultures, but only three of them occurred in AFS. Besides, alien diversity in monocultures (\(1/D\) = 2.173 ± 0.011) was significantly higher than in AFS (\(1/D\) = 1.031 ± 0.001). Such changes in alien plant community between land-use show that AFSs limit invasive species establishment. Therefore, when planted around protected areas, AFS may contribute to the control of biological invasions and to biodiversity conservation.     

Combining the socio-economic-cultural implications of community owned agroforestry: The Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska

Agroforestry systems usually are examined for their biological components and somewhat for economic feasibility but rarely for their sociocultural merits. A relatively young agroforestry system was examined in view of sociocultural, biological, and economic factors through the use of decision matrices. Decision criteria were used to evaluate an agroforestry system against two alternative landuse options, a corn-soybean rotation and renting the land to an agricultural producer. Economic, sociocultural, environmental, and risk criteria were considered simultaneously with a scaled Z-statistic and then compared by using four weighting schemes. When all criteria were weighted equally, the agroforestry system had the greatest Z-score (3.4), indicating the better alternative. Placing weights on economic criteria resulted with renting the land being the best alternative (Z-score 6.6). When sociocultural factors were weighted alone, or when greater weights were placed on sociocultural factors along with moderate weights on economic and risk factors, or when community weighted objectives were used, the introduced agroforestry system had the greatest Z-scores (11.5, 6.3, and 1.1, respectively). Use of weighted decision criteria allowed for sensitivity analysis between alternatives to be explored. This is especially important when using techniques that have a greater emphasis on economic parameters that are not equally important or appropriate cross-culturally. Use of decision matrices provides a more comprehensive method for comparing the multiple, interactive, and long-term benefits of the agroforestry system and competing land uses. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Economic potential of agroforestry for public recreational parks

The availability of public recreational facilities is being threatened by growing demands, limited supplies, and declining government funding. In response to these pressures, the economic potential of agroforestry for supplementing operating budgets of public recreational parks is examined in a case study park consisting of 324 hectares. Agroforestry enterprises native to the area were selected for development on 70 hectares of the site. Linear programming was used to determine the optimum combinations of 23 agroforestry regimes composed of the following activities: 1) conventional forestry planting, tree density of 1682 trees/hectare, 2) the selected agroforestry planting with hay, tree density of 1495 trees/hectare, 3) the selected agroforestry planting with grazing, 4) hay production, and 5) rental of pasture for grazing. The objective function of the study was to maximize the net present value of the study site subject to land, labor, capital, and minimum annual income constraints. The preferred optimal regime generated $1782 per hectare from an agroforestry planting configuration of 1495 trees/hectare with 75 percent hay, 25 percent grazing, and no annual income requirements. Minimum annual income requirements of $2400 and $4800 were feasible but suboptimal from a net present value criteria. The study found that agroforestry could be used to privatize selective activities of public recreational parks and thus enable public agencies to provide these facilities more effectively.     

Farmer perspectives on agroforestry opportunities and constraints in cape verde

In the água de Gato Watershed on the island of Santiago, Cape Verde Islands, 51 farmers were surveyed regarding their attitudes and knowledge of agroforestry. The farmers identified eight constraints to agroforestry implementation, with virtually all indicating that a source of loan funds was the major concern. Space or land constraints and availability of tree seedlings were identified as constraints by 94% and 88%, respectively. Despite these concerns, 92% of the farmers expressed a willingness to adopt or improve agroforestry practices in the watershed, with 73% expressing a willingness to establish fruit trees, 53% willing to establish trees or shrubs for fuelwood, and 16% willing to plant trees for shade.     

Technology impact evaluation in agroforestry projects

To identify appropriate methods for evaluating the impact of new agroforestry technologies, ICRAF in 1988–89 contacted 166 projects worldwide about their activities in agroforestry technology monitoring and evaluation. Of the 108 which responded, 45% were involved in some type of impact evaluation. This review revealed common difficulties in selecting impact indicators and methods of evaluation. Emphasis to date has been on evaluating numbers of trees planted and area under agroforestry, rather than socioeconomic impacts. Defining agroforestry adoption and distinguishing intermediate and final impacts were problematic. Impact studies were often difficult to interpret or compare, limiting their value for the rest of the agroforestry community. An analytical framework for planning impact evaluation in agroforestry projects is proposed, based on lessons learned from the review. Selection of indicators should depend upon whether project objectives relate to changes in: number and type of trees grown, land use, farmer knowledge and attitudes, availability of agroforestry products and services, and/or socioeconomic welfare. Data collection tools may include sequential photography or mapping, informal or formal farmer surveys, informal or formal field surveys, farmer meetings and workshops, trend analysis of project records, and case studies of households or communities, depending upon the audience for project evaluation and project resources.     

Non-additive effects of litter-mixing on soil carbon dioxide efflux from poplar-based agroforestry systems in the warm temperate region of China

Poplar-based agroforestry systems are one of the most important farming systems on the temperate plains of China, but soil respiration in those systems has seldom been reported. In this study, poplar leaf litter and residues of the two main crops (wheat and peanut) grown in the agroforestry system were amended to form different litter mixing treatments in field experiments at two sites located in Jiangsu Province, China. We measured soil respiration and environmental factors in the different treatments. Soil respiration rates were increased by the addition of plant residues but were strongly influenced by residue quality. During the growing season, soil respiration was negatively related with C/N ratio, while positively related with the initial P concentration of residues (P < 0.05). Poplar leaf litter and crop residues showed non-additive effects on soil respiration when they were mixed. Both air and soil temperature at 10 cm depth explained more than 85 % of the variation of soil respiration at both sites with an exponential model. A significant linear relationship between soil respiration and soil water content at 10 cm depth (W_S) was also observed. The percent of variation in soil respiration explained by a model based on air temperature and soil water content was greater than that explained by a model based on temperature alone. Thus, soil respiration in the studied poplar-based agroforestry systems was driven by both temperature and soil water content. Soil respiration was significantly different between the two sites that had different clay content and C/N ratios. Results from this study are important for us to understand how soil respiration responds to litter mixing or is influenced by biophysical factors in poplar-based agroforestry systems.     

Goodness-of-fit analysis on wood properties data from six Brazilian tropical hardwoods

As part of a larger effort to develop design stresses for six hardwood species indigenous to tropical Brazil, a study was conducted to evaluate the relative goodness-of-fit of four distributions (normal, lognormal, Weibull, and S_B) that are used in wood related applications to the characterization of the modulus of elasticity (MOE) and modulus of rupture (MOR) data obtained from tests on lumber and clear wood specimens. Three criteria [maximum likelihood, Kimball, and Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S)] were used to evaluate the distributions over their entire domain. The K-S test was also employed at the lower tail of the distributions to evaluate goodness-of-fit at this crucial location for design stress development. The results showed that with respect to both MOR and MOE, the S_B distribution was as good or better than the other distributions. This was especially noticeable with the MOR data, since this data is often more skewed than MOE and the S_B is particularly well suited to describe positively and negatively skewed data. The lognormal and the Weibull were both found to be useful under certain circumstances; the normal distribution, due to its lack of ability to characterize anything but symmetrical distributions, was found to be of virtually no value in this application. Significant distinctions were found between the structure of MOR and MOE data sets obtained from the tropical and temperate zone species. For reasons believed to be related to gross and anatomical structure, more skewness was found in the two temperate zone species studied than in the six tropical species. As such, the S_B distribution, with its greater ability to quantify skewed data, performed overwhelmingly better than the other distributions. In describing the six tropical species, the advantage of the S_B distribution was less pronounced. Received 16 November 1998     

Indigenous market-oriented agroforestry: dissecting local diversity in western Amazonia

This paper reports on a study of local diversity and variation in indigenous agroforestry practices among Amazonian peasants in a traditional community near Iquitos, Peru. Data were gathered through in-depth interviews with agroforestry-reliant households n = 36) on farming practices, demographic characteristics, income-expenditures and household wealth. Visits to crop fields and forest fallows n = 329) allowed the reconstruction of extensive cropping histories. More in-depth assessments of crop occurrence, density and diversity were conducted on 83 fields. Our results indicate considerable variation in field characteristics, agroforestry-cycles, and household agroforestry portfolios. Agroforestry practice is found to be strongly related to access to land within the community: households holding more land use both potentially more sustainable and more lucrative swidden-fallow agroforestry systems. Our results question the view of indigenous agroforestry systems as intrinsically ‘stable, equitable, and sustainable’, and underscore the importance of studying local variation in indigenous agroforestry practices. Promising avenues are discussed for future research on the factors related to the successful adoption of sustainable agroforestry systems. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Seasonal variation of soil respiration rates in a secondary forest and agroforestry systems

Agroforestry systems are widely practiced in tropical forests to recover degraded and deforested areas and also to balance the global carbon budget. However, our understanding of difference in soil respiration rates between agroforestry and natural forest systems is very limited. This study compared the seasonal variations in soil respiration rates in relation to fine root biomass, microbial biomass, and soil organic carbon between a secondary forest and two agroforestry systems dominated by Gmelina arborea and Dipterocarps in the Philippines during the dry and the wet seasons. The secondary forest had significantly higher (p < 0.05) soil respiration rate, fine root biomass and soil organic matter than the agroforestry systems in the dry season. However, in the wet season, soil respiration and soil organic matter in the G. arborea dominated agroforestry system were as high as in the secondary forest. Whereas soil respiration was generally higher in the wet than in the dry season, there were no differences in fine root biomass, microbial biomass and soil organic matter between the two seasons. Soil respiration rate correlated positively and significantly with fine root biomass, microbial biomass, and soil organic C in all three sites. The results of this study indicate, to some degree, that different land use management practices have different effects on fine root biomass, microbial biomass and soil organic C which may affect soil respiration as well. Therefore, when introducing agroforestry system, a proper choice of species and management techniques which are similar to natural forest is recommended.     

A socio-demographic examination of the perceived benefits of agroforestry

Agroforestry has been suggested to produce an array of ecological and socio-economic benefits that not only reach their adopters, but society as a whole. In spite of strong evidence of the benefits of agroforestry, there is a lack of understanding of the public perceptions of those benefits, which prevents the development of benefit-based promotion strategies of agroforestry products. Thus, this study examines the awareness of these benefits among residents and explores whether perceptions vary across individuals with different socio-demographic characteristics. An on-line platform was used to survey three panels of residents from Missouri, Pennsylvania and Texas. Overall, respondents had a neutral perception of the importance of the ecological and socio-economic benefits that agroforestry farms provide to society when compared to farms employing conventional agricultural practices. These results stress the need to increase public awareness of agroforestry practices and their benefits to more strategically position their products among the final consumer. Gender, education level, and residence location were significantly associated with the perceived ecological benefits produced by agroforestry farms and to a lesser extent with the socio-economic benefits. Results also showed that females and young individuals have a greater awareness of several benefits produced by agroforestry farms. Critical marketing implications to stimulate the purchase of agroforestry products (e.g., berries, nuts) among specific groups of consumers are discussed.     

四川盆地低山丘陵区农林复合模式分类与优化选择

针对四川盆地长江防护林体系建成后区内农林复合特征，提出了农田林网型、坡地林带型、山地林药型、林农间作型和庭园复合型计5个类型30个农林复合模式的分类系统，运用动态经济分析方法优选出了适于四川盆地低山区和丘陵区生产发展的10个优良农林复合模式。