A case for consumer-driven extension programming: agroforestry adoption potential in Pennsylvania

In an effort to assess agroforestry adoption potential among a diverse Pennsylvania landowner population, a mail survey instrument was sent to 250 members of the Pennsylvania Association of Sustainable Agriculture (PASA) and 250 members of Woodland Owner Associations (WOA). Current management objectives and production strategies, agroforestry awareness, agroforestry interest, and perceptions regarding the benefits and obstacles to agroforestry adoption were gauged. Market segmentation was performed with a two-step cluster analysis to produce four agroforestry adoption potential models: Timber-Related Practices, Livestock-Related Practices, Specialty Crop-Related Practices, and Non-Adopters. The analyses showed that agroforestry practices could indeed satisfy specific land management objectives within diverse populations. The key to outreach success and adoption will be to engage these landowner groups according to their unique interests and values, and to demonstrate the potential agroforestry has to enhance existing objectives.     

Assessing agroforestry adoption potential utilising market segmentation: A case study in Pennsylvania

In the United States, agroforestry adoption has lagged behind progress in agroforestry systems research. This study sought to facilitate the communication of landowner land management objectives, values, knowledge and perceptions of the barriers and benefits to agroforestry through applied social marketing research methods and market segmentation analysis. A mail survey instrument was sent to 250 members of the Pennsylvania Association of Sustainable Agriculture (PASA) and 250 members of Woodland Owner Associations (WOA). Current management objectives and production strategies, agroforestry awareness, agroforestry interest, and perceptions regarding the benefits and obstacles to agroforestry adoption were gauged. Market segmentation was performed with a two-step cluster analysis to produce four agroforestry adoption potential models: Timber-Related Practices, Livestock-Related Practices, Specialty Crop-Related Practices, and Non-Adopters. The analyses showed that agroforestry practices could satisfy specific land management objectives within diverse populations. The method effectively identified similarities in agroforestry adoption scenarios. Market segmentation could be utilised as a social marketing tool to guide future policy development, scientific research, and the efficacy and relevance of future agroforestry research and outreach programs. The next step in program development should include the creation of a statewide multidisciplinary team comprised of university, non-profit association and landowner representation, to develop agroforestry applications relevant to each cluster and promote the practices through landowner-led on-farm demonstrations and workshops.     

Understanding patterns of tree adoption on farms in semi-arid and sub-humid Ethiopia

Trees on farms are a widespread feature of landscapes across a large part of Ethiopia with an important role in enhancing the resilience of smallholder livelihoods through the provision of ecosystem services. Despite their importance, little is known about what trees are planted or retained from natural regeneration by different types of farmers that results in the pattern of tree cover found in the region. We address this knowledge gap through analysis of household survey data from semi-arid and sub humid areas of Oromia regional state. A set of composite variables that represent distinctive patterns of tree cover on farms were derived from principal component analysis and Pearson correlation analysis. This revealed two major tree adoption strategies: farmer managed natural regeneration (FMNR) of trees to meet subsistence needs as well as contributing to other ecosystem services; and, high value agroforestry (HVAF) involving planted trees used largely to produce fruits, timber and fodder. Regression analysis further identified fine-scale variation in ecological and socio-economic factors that affect which of these two broad strategies are adopted by farmers. Favorable climatic conditions coupled with institutional arrangements to control free grazing were pre-conditions for HVAF, whereas poor biophysical potential and sloping land provided a positive incentive for farmers to adopt FMNR. Farmers with preferences for tree species with multiple utilities and locational flexibility favored FMNR while adoption of HVAF was more asset-driven. Our findings reveal that farmers integrate many native and exotic tree species on their farms to meet their variable farm conditions, needs and asset profiles in stark contrast to most tree promotion efforts that focus on a few, usually exotic, tree species. We recommend that future agroforestry promotion should embrace a diversity of tree species appropriate to matching the fine scale variation in ecological conditions and farmer circumstances encountered in the field.     

Increasing Tree Cover in Degrading Landscapes: ‘Integration’ and ‘Intensification’ of Smallholder Forest Culture in the Alutilla Valley,Matiranga, Bangladesh

Research was conducted in Alutilla Valley in eastern Bangladesh to identify the nature of existing agroforestry systems and to identify potential agroforestry models that could ameliorate currently degrading forest resources Data were collected through farmer participatory research and a structured quarterly survey in two villages. Qualitative and supplementary quantitative analysis methods were used to assess the financial potential of agroforestry systems. Various patterns of agroforestry exist in the study site, but all have two common principles, namely ‘integration with agriculture’ and ‘multi-functionality’. Two agroforestry models suitable for adoption by farmers have been identified. Multi-strata agroforestry, based on a fruit and timber tree canopy with vegetables and tuber species in the understorey, can be practiced in the shifting cultivation fields near settlements. Fruit and timber tree-based conservation agroforestry is well suited to manage large-scale biologically depleted landscapes. Both systems yield early financial returns, facilitating the change from shifting cultivation to multi-strata agroforestry or fruit and tree-based conservation agroforestry.     

Jatropha adoption: a statistical observational study of factors influencing Malian farmers’ decision to grow Jatropha

An accurate understanding of the factors that influence farmers’ adoption of a crop is critical for effective policy promotion and technical support. Agroforestry crop adoption is a complex topic involving many factors not often addressed by tradition crop adoption models. This complexity, when applied to Jatropha (Jatropha curcas L.), an often widely promoted yet poorly understood biofuel feedstock crop, requires a detailed analysis across diverse topics. Such an analysis was carried out through applying rigorous statistical tools to the data acquired from an interview-based household survey among Malian farmers and was combined with relevant geospatial datasets. The results showed that though farmers’ adoption is based on a wide variety of factors from household preferences, resource endowments, bio-physical factors, and market incentives, factors related to risk and uncertainty appear to provide the strongest correlation. Specifically, the number of visits that an agriculture extension agent makes with a farmer was found to be the most significant factor influencing adoption.     

Agroforestry research and development in southern Africa during the 1990s: Review and challenges ahead

In light of the large number of empirical studies of agroforestry adoption published during the last decade, we believe it is time to take stock and identify general determinants of agroforestry adoption. In reviewing 120 articles on adoption of agricultural and forestry technology by small holders, we find five categories of factors that explain technology adoption within an economic framework: preferences, resource endowments, market incentives, biophysical factors, and risk and uncertainty. By selecting only empirical analyses that focus on agroforestry and related investments, we narrow our list down to 32 studies primarily from tropical areas. We apply vote-counting based meta-analysis to these studies and evaluate the inclusion and significance of the five adoption factors. Our analysis shows that preferences and resource endowments are the factors most often included in studies. However, adoption behavior is most likely to be significantly influenced by risk, biophysical, and resource factors. In our conclusion, we discuss specific recommendations for the next generation of adoption studies and meta-analyses that include considering a fuller menu of variables, reporting key statistics and marginal probabilities, and conducting weighted meta-regressions.This revised version was published online in November 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Western Oregon forest landowner beliefs about the outcomes of mandatory riparian buffer regulations

Research about nonindustrial private forest (NIPF) landowners’ perspectives on voluntary conservation-based programs continues to proliferate. However, there is a gap in understanding NIPF landowner perspectives about the social and ecological outcomes of mandatory conservation-based regulations. We sent questionnaires to Oregon NIPF landowners to understand their beliefs about potential outcomes of proposed state regulations that strengthen mandatory riparian buffer habitat protection requirements. Factor analysis and multiple regression techniques revealed the most important variables that influence those beliefs. Overall, respondents believed that the socioeconomic outcomes were negative and the ecological outcomes were neutral or slightly positive. Respondents with more conservative political attitudes who owned larger properties were more likely to believe that the outcomes would be negative. As the importance of maintaining property for future generations and increasing timber productivity increased, respondents believed the potential outcomes would be increasingly negative. As the importance of improving water quality, increasing carbon storage, and improving recreational use on the property increased, respondents believed that the outcomes would be increasingly positive. We discuss management and policy implications, including communication strategies aimed at engaging with NIPF landowners to highlight the purpose and potential outcomes of forest and riparian management regulations.     

Serving members and reaching others: The performance and social networks of a landowner cooperative

Local forest landowner associations and broader peer-to-peer learning efforts have received attention–particularly in the United States of America–as ways to increase landowner engagement in forest planning and management. Unlike traditional technical assistance and outreach, knowledge is primarily shared among landowners as opposed to being derived from natural resource professionals. While potentially promising, few studies have investigated these approaches. Through a study of a landowner cooperative in Wisconsin, I report on a finding that considers both the effectiveness of a landowner cooperative in the Upper Midwest (USA) and the social network members rely on in decision-making. The former relies on an importance–performance analysis (IPA) of the services provided by the cooperative and the latter on an egocentric network analysis of members with an emphasis on strong and weak ties. Data were collected via a mail survey to which 146 members (81%) responded. The IPA indicates that the cooperative is providing services with which members are largely satisfied. The network analysis suggests that members, through strong ties, discuss their land with on average three others—primarily natural resource professionals (including cooperative staff), as opposed to other members, neighbors, and kin. However, by virtue of membership, they share weak ties with other members whom they see as trustworthy. The extent to which a network perspective might be applied to similar situations is discussed, as are conceptual implications and future directions. The main conclusion is that the emergence of local landowner associations and peer-to-peer learning requires research methods that better capture the social nature of these new directions.     

The Effect of Data Collection Technique on Estimated Landowner Personal Network Attributes

Social network analysis, focusing on the role of interpersonal relationships on the flow of information, trust, and service delivery, is increasingly recognized as a valuable approach to understanding landowner behavior. Landowner personal networks are central to Diffusion of Innovations theory and the Theory of Planned Behavior, both of which are commonly invoked in the design of interventions to encourage sustainable private forest management. However, personal network data can be difficult to obtain for a large sample. We tested the effect of three different personal network name generators on estimates of Minnesota landowners’ forestry information networks: a list of generic alter categories, an open-ended written survey, and a combination of written survey and follow-up telephone survey. Generic network data provided a relatively accurate baseline. Personal network data from a written survey provided more detailed data but underestimated network diversity and failed to account for potentially influential weak ties. A combination of written and follow-up telephone survey both doubled estimated average network size from 2.8 to 5.5 alters and increased estimated network diversity from 2.3 alter categories per respondent to 3.7. Network data from the written survey revealed a bias in favor of strong ties that was largely overcome through additional prompting during the telephone survey. A combination of written surveys and telephone or in-person interviews may be the best strategy to balance the benefit of a large sample with the cost of more intensive, yet more reliable, data collection methods.     

Agroecology as a Climate Change Adaptation Strategy for Smallholders of Tehri-Garhwal in the Indian Himalayan Region

Climate change is expected to increase temperatures and rainfall in the Himalayan region and place stress on local livelihoods by affecting agro-biodiversity, crop yield, cropping patterns and the species composition of forests. This paper reports findings of a survey of farmers into the role of agroforestry or ‘agroecological intensification’ for reducing climate change vulnerability. The survey was conducted in the Tehri-Garhwal district of Uttarakhand, a Himalayan State of India. Existing traditional agroforestry was found to provide ecosystem services to farmers at various scales ranging from the global to household level, contributing to the livelihoods and resilience of the farmers to climate change. The strategies of farmers for adaptating to climate change include adoption of agroforestry due to its diversified agricultural and forest products and services. The analysis suggests that policies should consider agroforestry as a tool for improving the livelihood and resilience to climate change of farmers.     

Factors affecting the adoption of agroforestry practices by farmers in Cameroon

This paper presents empirical evidence on the impact of socio-economic factors on the adoption of agroforestry practices in Cameroon. The analysis uses primary farm-level data collected from June to December 1996. Three major provinces of the country were covered, namely Centre, Southwest and Northwest Several agroforestry technologies have been promoted among farmers in the zone, including alley farming, improved fallow, live fencing, cut-and-carry fodder and apiculture. The status of adoption of each agroforestry practice is described and factors that affect adoption identified. These are gender of farmer, household family size, level of education, farmer’s experience, membership within farmers’ associations, contact with research and extension, security of land tenure, agroecological zone, distance of the village from nearest town, village accessibility and income from livestock. Research findings indicate that since factors affecting farmers’ adoption of agroforestry practices differ across techniques, generalisation is to be avoided.     

Examining private forest policy preferences

Policy tools are employed to effect changes in the behaviors of citizens. Policy tools, such as incentives and regulation, act as the medium through which the target population may comply with policy objectives; however, policymakers must choose carefully which policy tools to adopt. Given the predominance of privately-owned forestland in Indiana and the United States, this research explores forest policy tool preferences of family forest owners in southern Indiana. The research is based on data from 309 respondents to a mail survey of landowners in 32 southern Indiana counties. The research objectives were 1) to determine what factors influence policy preferences among family forest owners and 2) to make recommendations to policymakers regarding what policy approaches are best suited to differing landowner types. Regression analyses identify landowner attitudes as significant predictors of policy preferences and also identified both absentee and riparian forest owners as more supportive of private forest policies. Based upon the results, recommendations to private forest policymakers are made.     

Nonindustrial private landowners,fires, and the wildland–urban interface

We estimate the value to a non-industrial forest landowner of information about the magnitude of fire arrival rates. A simulation based on a model from Amacher et al. [Amacher, G., Malik, A., Haight, R., in press. Not getting burned: the importance of fire prevention in forest management. Land Economics] is used to assess the cost of mistakes made by a landowner when stand management decisions are made without perfect knowledge of the fire arrival probability. These costs are reflected in the higher losses incurred by a landowner if fire arrives during a rotation. The representative landowner studied in the simulation is assumed to value nontimber benefits, and to make rotation age, planting density and fuel reduction decisions. We find that the value of information about the overall magnitude of fire risk is more than twice as high when the landowner underestimates fire risk, rather than overestimating it.     

Family forest owner preferences for biomass harvesting in Massachusetts

U.S. forests, including family-owned forests, are a potential source of biomass for renewable energy. Family forest owners constitute a significant portion of the overall forestland in the U.S., yet little is known about family forest owners' preferences for supplying wood-based biomass. The goal of this study is to understand how Massachusetts family forest owners feel about harvesting residual woody biomass from their property. The study estimates the probability that Massachusetts landowners will harvest biomass as part of a timber harvest using data from a survey of 932 Massachusetts family forest owners. Logistic regression results suggest that the likelihood of harvesting for biomass is quite low, and that the supply of participation in biomass harvesting is inelastic with respect to price. These low probabilities may be due to the method used to account for preference uncertainty, as well as the unique nature of Massachusetts forests, forest markets, and landowner attitudes in comparison to other states (e.g., Minnesota). The study suggests that it would be more effective to target renewable energy policy toward different regions and/or markets rather than develop a uniform national policy.     

Indexing Soil Conservation

Abstract

Soil erosion poses economic and environmental concerns in many tropical uplands. Agroforestry has been proposed as a sustainable land use that can mitigate soil erosion and promote the economic welfare of small farmers. To evaluate such claims, we must (a) develop a composite measure of effectiveness, such as a soil conservation index, and (b) define it in terms understood by the farmers who ultimately choose to adopt and implement agroforestry. We construct an empirical soil conservation index as a weighted average of farmer perceptions of four soil attributes and develop a statistical model of soil conservation benefits of agroforestry by using survey data from the Philippines. Accounting for self-selection bias, we evaluate the soil conservation benefits by testing the correlation between the index and the level of agroforestry adoption. Our estimated model shows that agroforestry can generate 15-20 percent soil conservation for the typical small farmer. We offer several methodological, practical, and policy insights. Because many farmers in developing countries face informational and capital constraints, our study suggests that public policies should support smallholder agroforestry, a type of “natural investment” in soil capital, to generate private and public benefits.     

Attitudes Toward Joint Forest Planning Among Private Landowners

Abstract

On fragmented forest lands, ecosystem or landscape management approaches must cut across multiple ownerships. Therefore, communication and joint planning between neighboring landowners may be necessary for successful implementation of ecosystem management. This study examines landowners' interest in, and attitude toward, ecosystem management. Specifically, we use a survey and logistic regression model to explain landowner interest in joint planning as a proxy for their interest in ecosystem management. Survey results show that almost 70% of the landowners are interested in joint planning. However, most landowners require certain conditions be met before they would participate. Variables pertaining to attitudes and beliefs about ecosystem management or property rights, and receiving incentives for cooperation across the landscape are more important than demographic, land management, or spatial characteristics in explaining landowners' interest in joint planning. Landowners who believe in managing forests for environmental, wildlife and water quality as well as timber are more likely to be interested. The primary concern of those interested in joint planning is the impact it may have on their timber and/or land values. Planners who develop ecosystem management approaches that involve landowner cooperation should make the environmental impacts and benefits clear, and ensure that it will not reduce land and timber values.     

Using Benefit Transfer to Estimate Average Relative Marginal Values for Wildland Fire Program Planning

We developed a set of generalized value categories and average relative marginal values using resource and valuation information collected at seven federal land management planning units in the USA. The categories and average values are intended to be used for rapid strategic wildland fire program planning or as foundation values for a more extended planning effort. To divide the original information into logical and statistically valid value categories, we used a k-means cluster analysis combined with expert knowledge of how each resource type is managed with respect to fire. After we established the value categories, we performed a regression tree analysis to estimate an average relative marginal value for each category under different combinations of ecosystem condition and fireline intensity. Average values for each category are as expected and the regression tree fits are excellent with R² values ranging from .895 to .948. The results of this study can be used to identify general resource types for planning or other valuation analyses and they provide a low cost way to transfer nonmarket value information between similar planning sites.     

Financial analysis of diameter-limit cut stands in northern hardwoods

Diameter-limit cutting of stands in the US northeast is a common practice often thought to give the landowner the highest financial returns. A landowner’s decision to diameter-limit cut or use some other harvesting option on a given stand involves examining mutually exclusive investments. Previous research that compared diameter-limit cutting to other harvesting options implicitly assumed these were independent investments. This paper develops analytical models to examine a variety of harvesting options for a single stand, including diameter-limit cutting, as mutually exclusive investments, and with stand and financial parameters defined by the landowner. These models are used to examine implications of changes in the financial parameters for harvesting options. It is found that no simple guidelines can be laid down for choice of harvesting options to maximise the net present value of stands with respect to diameter-limit cutting compared to other harvesting options. The empirical examples reveal that which harvesting option has the largest net present value depends on the parameters of the landowner’s stand and the financial parameters chosen by the landowner. The analysis illustrates the importance of understanding the interrelationships between the financial and stand parameters in determining whether a diameter-limit cut is in fact the best financial option for a landowner.     

Agroforestry Tree Seed Production and Supply Systems in Malawi

A sustainable agroforestry tree germplasm supply system is vital to resource-constrained smallholder farmers who depend on agroforestry to improve the productivity of their farm enterprises. Successful adoption of agroforestry hinges on the development of a sustainable agroforestry tree germplasm supply system. This paper reviews the agroforestry tree seed supply system in Malawi, with a view to determining its sustainability and quality. Currently, more than 90% of the documented agroforestry tree seed distributed to farmers is produced by smallholder farmers collected mainly from scattered farmland trees, the remainder being produced from seed orchards and seed stands owned or controlled by research organizations. Three organizations—namely the Land Resources Centre (LRC), National Tree Seed Centre (NTSC) of the Forestry Research Institute of Malawi (FRIM) and the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF)—were identified as major procurers of agroforestry tree seed produced by smallholder farmers. Agroforestry germplasm is distributed to farmers by non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and government agricultural and forestry extension departments. The procurement and distribution of germplasm to farmers is in general effective. The major challenge to sustainability of agroforestry tree germplasm distribution in Malawi is dependence on donor funding. The agroforestry tree seed system is, to some extent, sustainable with regards to production, although the genetic quality of the germplasm is low. Germplasm storage facilities at national level are available and possibly adequate, but knowledge and information on effective low-cost tree germplasm storage systems at household level are limited. Sustainability could be enhanced by strengthening of grass-root organizations involved in tree seed production to institutionalize the distribution through farmer–farmer exchange. There is also a need to support the development, promotion and adoption of low-cost tree germplasm storage facilities by smallholder farmers.     

Antecedents to forest owner innovativeness: An investigation of the non-timber forest products and services sector

Increased urbanization in many societies is having a negative impact on vitality of rural areas. To maintain the vitality of these areas governments have employed a variety of policies, some of which are designed to facilitate innovation and enhance landowner innovativeness. However, little research has investigated the antecedents to landowner innovativeness and whether innovativeness positively impacts economic performance in this setting. The present study investigates these issues in the context of Norwegian forestland owners and their involvement in non-timber forest products and services (a form of ecosystem services). The authors present a conceptual model hypothesizing that social networking, entrepreneurial climate, and a learning orientation each have a direct, positive impact on landowner innovativeness and innovativeness has a direct, positive impact on economic performance. Property size is included as a moderating variable. Data were collected via a mail survey and a total of 683 useable responses were received reaching an adjusted response rate of 35%. Results show that social networking and a learning orientation positively impact innovativeness, but that entrepreneurial climate does not. Innovativeness was found to positively impact economic performance. The authors outline implications of the findings that may be used by policy makers, landowners and research.