Sustaining Tropical Forest Biodiversity

Abstract

Tropical forests are very rich in biological diversity and form an important economic and ecological resource. This biodiversity is of great value for communities living in or near these forests as a ready source of subsistence and cash income, and for the world at large as a source of tropical timber and non-timber products and a repository of genetic and chemical information. However, this biological complexity is diminishing rapidly. We analyze the main human (anthropogenic) actions causing loss of tropical forest biodiversity along with the strategies of management for forest biodiversity. Not only is the biophysical component important in management for biodiversity, but the action participation and support of local people, the national government and international cooperation as a whole, arc essential for an effective and sustainable development of tropical forests. This integrated development strategy ensures that socio-economic and environmental benefits are provided for present and future generations.     

State Failure,Corruption, and Warfare: Challenges for Forest Policy

ABSTRACT

Forest policies are failing in large areas of the world. In too many nations, forest area is declining, timber revenues are not capturing actual economic values, management plans—where they exist at all—are ignored, and ecologically significant areas are being degraded. In many places, public lands and even national parks cannot be protected against encroachment. Bitter local controversies over forest tenure and use rights persist. In many places, the underlying preconditions for sustainability do not exist in the face of state weakness and failure, corruption, and war. States generally recognized as failed or fragile encompass 15% of the world's forest. A cross tab of forest area (2005) against the Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index shows that nearly half of the world's forest is in nations with what TI calls “rampant” corruption. This includes several major nations with extensive forests and important biodiversity hotspots. An encouraging upsurge of willingness to face this issue has occurred in the development community. But uprooting corruption and fixing state failure is easier said than done. Considering this fact, the outlook for more than half of the world's forest area—important to indigenous and forest-dependent people, and containing critical reserves of biodiversity—is grim.     

The potential value of agroforestry to dung beetle diversity in the wet tropical forests of the Pacific lowlands of Colombia

In tropical regions where agricultural activities are limited, agroforestry is an alternative for both economic development and for the management and conservation of biodiversity. The potential role of different types of land use as reservoirs of dung beetle diversity in the wet tropical forest of the Pacific lowlands of Colombia is evaluated in three agroforestry systems that differ in canopy cover and the sowing density of Borojoa patinoi crops associated with timber forest. Although total species richness was similar among land use types, differences related to the decrease in the abundance and biomass of the species were remarkable, and reflected in turn by the diversity and structure of the guilds. The general pattern observed was one in which the structure of the dung beetle assemblage of B. patinoi growing below a diversified and permanent tree cover was similar to that of the primary and secondary forest. Beetle diversity in management systems with less tree cover or a high sowing density of B. patinoi was lower and very similar to that of abandoned agricultural fields. This suggests that B. patinoi agroforestry systems can be viewed as valuable instruments for biodiversity management and conservation in the wet tropical forests of the Pacific lowlands and not just as substitutes for forest, though we must be aware that structural changes in the beetle community may in turn affect the ecological processes regulated by these insects in the agrosystems under study.     

Modern Nursery Practices in the Production of Quality Seedlings of Indian Sandalwood (Santalum album L.)— Stage of Host Requirement and Screening of Primary Host Species

Abstract

Fewer than one tenth of tropical forests are being managed on a sustainable basis. Sustainable forest management means managing the forest in such a way as to not irreversibly reduce the potential of that forest to produce all products in subsequent harvests. The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio resulted in several decisions that are relevant to the future of forestry. The Conference also focused world attention on questions of the environment. One outcome of this increased awareness has been the growing support for eco-labelling, which may provide an opportunity for those countries able to prove their forest products are harvested sustainably. Other economic opportunities present themselves in the utilization for cellulose of tree crops such as rubberwood and oil palm trunks and fronds. Non-wood resources such as rattan also hold promise if we are able to grow them in conjunction with existing tree crops. The roles of tropical forests as carbon sinks require more in-depth study as does the question of what constitutes critical levels of biodiversity. Aesthetic values such as recreational use increasingly require that sufficient buffer zones of unique features be preserved. These challenges demand that the forestry profession becomes more proactive and support major policy changes to address the need for sustainable forest management.     

Sustainable Forests: It's About Time (Montana)

Abstract

Forest health should be determined by ecological criteria as opposed to the more limited tree production approach. We must recognize the vital relationships between conserving biological diversity and sustaining forest ecosystems. World-wide forest management practices have too often ignored ecological principles, thereby jeopardizing forest health in the long-term. Much warranted attention has been given to rain forest problems. Temperate, mountain forests are also threatened, presenting unique sustainability problems. The forests of western Montana are a case in point. Sustainability is, of course, about time, and it is about time that forest management is changed to assure healthy forests for the future.     

Underpricing and Overexploitation of Tropical Forests

Abstract

Forest pricing policies for tropical timber and forest concessions can play an important role in the management, conservation, and preservation of tropical forests. The paper draws on regional studies of forest revenue systems and forest concession arrangements, country case studies, and studies in individual countries of West and Central Africa and South East Asia (Grut, Gray, and Egli, 1991; Gray and Hadi, 1989; Gray and Hadi, 1990; and Gray, 1983). Forest pricing and concession management policies, problems, and experiences in individual countries are examined, common problems and experiences highlighted, and alternatives identified. From these, the elements of a forest pricing and concession management system which supports sustainable management, efficient utilization, and forest renewal are developed.     

Biomass carbon pools of Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lamb.) Hook. forests in subtropical China: Characteristics and potential

Abstract

Swedish forestry has successfully developed systems for sustained yield production of wood. Silvicultural techniques are today completely dominated (96%) by clear-felling methods. By contrast, Swedish natural forests and preindustrial cultural woodlands were ecologically and culturally diverse, with a substantial proportion having a continuous tree cover as a response to natural disturbance dynamics and preindustrial agricultural land management. If forest management systems do not mimic this diversity of disturbance regimes sufficiently well, the scope of sustainable forest management to include biodiversity and sociocultural values will not be met. This study estimated the past and present amount of one cultural and two natural disturbance regimes known to deliver continuous tree cover in two study areas located around two important biophysical and sociocultural transition zones in northern and southern Sweden, respectively. Several approaches were used to estimate the amount of remaining continuous tree cover forests. The results indicate that 9–10% of the study areas is made up by site types that historically would have held a large proportion of continuous tree cover forests. Estimates for productive site types show that only 1–2% of these sites remain in southern Sweden and 10–20% in northern Sweden. The data indicate that present management in both study areas is similar. Thus, these differences between the regions will disappear in a few decades. To achieve the aim of Swedish forest and environmental policies there is a clear need to develop and use alternative forest management methods on appropriate sites.     

Succession and management of tropical dry forests in the Americas: Review and new perspectives

Understanding tropical forest succession is critical for the development of tropical forest conservation strategies worldwide, given that tropical secondary forests can be considered the forests of the future. Tropical dry forests (TDF) are among the most threatened tropical ecosystems, there are more secondary forests and forest restoration efforts that require a better understanding of successional processes. The main goal of this synthesis for this special issue on the ecology and management of tropical dry forests in the Americas is to present a summarized review of the current knowledge of the ecology and management implications associated to TDF succession. We explore specific issues associated to tropical dry forest succession with emphasis on the use of chronosequences, plant diversity and composition, plant phenology and remote sensing, pollination, and animal–plant interactions; all under the integrating umbrella of ecosystem succession. We also emphasize the need to conduct socio-ecological research to understand changes in land-use history and its effects on succession and forest regeneration of TDF. We close this paper with some thoughts and ideas associated with the strong need for an integrating dimension not considered until today: the role of cyberinfrastructure and eco-informatics as a tool to support sound conservation, management and understanding of TDF in the Americas.     

Evaluation of environmental functions of tropical forest in Kinabalu Park, Sabah, Malaysia using GIS and remote sensing techniques: Implications to forest conservation planning

Environmental functions of tropical forest can serve as criteria for forest conservation planning in the tropics. The objective of this study is to evaluate the environmental functions of tropical forest in Kinabalu Park, Sabah, Malaysia, using GIS and remote sensing techniques. Field data, statistical data, including weather data with geographic localities, maps and satellite image are collected. Linear regression models are developed for forests of different geological substrates, based on the relationships between altitude and biodiversity (Fisher’s alpha index). Biodiversity conservation function map is derived with the statistical models and a digital elevation model. Coupling with extensive literature review, an evaluation matrix for evaluating soil and water conservation functions including landslide prevention, flood prevention and drought prevention functions, is constructed. To evaluate the soil and water conservation functions, a weighted linear combination method is used with GIS layers of topography, geology, soil depth, rainfall and slope. Forest areas in Kinabalu Park are derived with land cover mapping using Landsat-TM image. Areas having high values of biodiversity conservation, flood and drought prevention functions are covered with mainly lowland rain forest. On the other hand, areas with high values of the landslide prevention function are covered with mainly subalpine forests. Using the environmental functions, a conservation index is computed to represent forests that are important to conservation. Based on theCI, the lowland rain forest receives highest priority in protection. In fact, it is located in the boundary areas of the park and thus exposed to illegal activities. This study would not be possibly accomplished without the map data as well as other data.     

Concepts and perceptions of biodiversity in community forestry,Nepal

International and national development programs in Nepal place high priority on management of forests for biodiversity. Communities are expected to embrace and cooperate in this endeavour for biodiversity conservation, yet little research has been carried out to understand community viewpoints on biodiversity conservation, or even to ascertain people’s understanding of the concept of biodiversity. This paper explores perceptions and concepts related to biodiversity and its conservation held by people involved in community forestry in Nepal. Data were obtained from in-depth individual interviews and focus group discussions carried out in two contrasting geographical districts. The results show that the Western term ‘biodiversity’, translated into Nepalese as jaiwik bibidhata, is new and confusing to most forest people, who interpret the term in a variety of ways. People’s perceptions of biodiversity vary widely and a considerable gap exists between policy-makers and forest users in the understanding and interpretation of this Nepalese term and its related concepts. These findings have important implications for the design and implementation of development programs and in formulation of forest policy in Nepal.     

Attitudes Towards Biodiversity Conservation of Forests Dwellers and Encroachers: A Case Study of Assam in Northeast India

By enacting the Forest Rights Act 2006, the Government of India aimed to protect the rights of the forest dwellers; at the same time, it sought to involve the forest dwellers in protecting the forests. But the forest dwellers are critical of this Act, on the ground that it does not consider tribal customary laws, which are essential to protect both the forests and the rights of the forest dwellers. This paper examines the perceptions and attitudes of the dwellers of village forest and encroachers towards biodiversity conservation under the rights enshrined in the Forest Rights Act 2006. A survey was conducted in190 households in four village forests and two encroached villages under reserved forests of Sonitpur and Golaghat districts of Assam in Northeast India. The majority of the respondents were found to have positive attitudes towards environmental issues in general and protection of biodiversity loss in particular. Village-type, residents’ occupation, caste, source of fuel for cooking, educational qualifications and size of land holding were found to be significantly associated with attitudes towards biodiversity conservation. It is concluded that conducting an environmental education program and rights-holders’ monitoring system on the impact of their use of forest resources will support conservation of biodiversity.     

Nature vs. nurture: managing relationships between forests,agroforestry and wild biodiversity

Many agroforestry systems are found in places that otherwise would be appropriate for natural forests, and often have replaced them. Humans have had a profound influence on forests virtually everywhere they both are found. Thus ‘natural’ defined as ‘without human influence’ is a hypothetical construct, though one that has assumed mythological value among many conservationists. Biodiversity is a forest value that does not carry a market price. It is the foundation, however, upon which productive systems depend. The relationship between agroforestry and the wild biodiversity contained in more natural forests is a complicated one, depending on the composition of the agroforestry system itself and the way it is managed. Complex forest gardens are more supportive of biodiversity than monocrop systems, shade coffee more than sun coffee, and systems using native plants tend to be more biologically diverse. Nonnative plants, especially potentially invasive alien species, threaten biodiversity and need to be avoided. The relationship between forests, agroforestry and wild biodiversity can be made most productive through applying adaptive management approaches that incorporate ongoing research and monitoring in order to feed information back into the management system. Maintaining diversity in approaches to management of agroforestry systems will provide humanity with the widest range of options for adapting to changing conditions. Clear government policy frameworks are needed that support alliances among the many interest groups involved in forest biodiversity.

     

Sustainable Forest Management in Tropical Rain Forests

Abstract

In planning of sustainable forest management, economic, environmental and social demands often conflict. Forest management in Southeast Asian tropical dipterocarp forests has been particularly biased towards maximizing immediate economic return from extensive logging. Overexploitation and other forms of uncontrolled land use within these forests have led to the situation where the remaining natural forests, most of them in Indonesia, will be liquidated within the next 10-15 years at the current rate of deforestation. In this paper we present an approach for sustainable forest management planning in which economic, environmental and social sustainability are considered simultaneously in order to define an optimal management strategy from a set of available alternatives.

We carried out a case study within a rain forest logging concession in Indonesian Borneo by using a participatory planning approach involving interviews of the local people, environmental assessment and economic analyses. We used the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) method for resource allocation and priority setting in order to identify an optimal strategy which yields a sustained economic output from timber production, while at the same time being environmentally and socioculturally sustainable. Despite their relatively high costs, strategies involving selective harvesting combined to complete restoration of original dipterocarp stock in logged-over areas were superior in terms of economic, environmental and social sustainability. Priorities set by local communities for the strategies to meet their socioeconomic and cultural needs coincide well with those ensuring the restoration and biodiversity.     

按照“激励相容”原理启动热带次生林和退化林地的可持续经营

中国热带天然次生林和退化林地约有1000万hm2,约占热带国土总面积的1/3。在这里,涉及森林资源可持续经营和经济社会可持续发展的基本课题尚未解决。文中建议利用“激励相容”的原理,针对中国的3种次生林和退化林地大类型,选择典型地区,按照尽可能接近当地社区及居民的原则,建立一个由分散化、微型化和多样化示范的小区组成的示范体系,高效率地推进热带次生林和退化林地的可持续经营,增强热带经济社会发展的弱可持续性并进一步向强可持续性转化。     

Tropical reptiles in pine forests: Assemblage responses to plantations and plantation management by burning

Worldwide, the land area devoted to timber plantations is expanding rapidly, especially in the tropics, where reptile diversity is high. The impacts of plantation forestry and its management on native species are poorly known, but are important, because plantation management goals often include protecting biodiversity. We examined the impact of pine (Pinus caribaea) plantations, and their management by fire, on the abundance and richness of reptiles, a significant proportion of the native biodiversity in tropical northern Australia, by (i) comparing abundance and diversity of reptiles among pine plantations (on land cleared specifically for plantation establishment), and two adjacent native forest types, eucalypt and Melaleuca woodlands, and (ii) comparing reptile abundance and richness in pine forest burnt one year prior to the study to remove understorey vegetation with pine forest burnt two years prior to the study. We also examined the influence of fire on reptile assemblages in native vegetation, by comparing eucalypt woodland burnt two years prior to the study and unburnt for eight years. To quantify mechanisms driving differences in reptile richness and abundance among forest types and management regimes, we measured forest structure, the temperatures used by reptiles (operative temperature) and solar radiation, at replicate sites in all forest types and management regimes. Compared to native forests, pine forests had taller trees, lower shrub cover in the understorey, more and deeper exotic litter (other than pine), and were cooler and shadier. Reptile assemblages in pine forests were as rich as those in native forests, but pine assemblages were composed mainly of species that typically use closed-canopy rainforest and prefer cooler, shadier habitats. Burning did not appear to influence the assemblage structure of reptiles in native forest, but burning under pine was associated with increased skink abundance and species richness. Burned pine was not warmer or sunnier than unburned pine, a common driver of reptile abundance, so the shift in lizard use after burning may have been driven by structural differences in understorey vegetation, especially amounts of non-native litter, which were reduced by burning. Thus, burning for management under pine increased the abundance and richness of lizard assemblages using pine. Pine plantations do not support the snake diversity common to sclerophyllous native forests, but pine may have the potential to complement rainforest lizard diversity if appropriately managed.     

Biodiversity Values and Measures Applied to Forest Management

Abstract

With the new emphasis in land management agencies (particularly the USDA Forest Service) on ecosystem management, new attention is being paid to measurements of biological diversity (biodiversity). Forest managers faced with incorporating the maintenance of biodiversity into their analyses, plans, and decisions need reliable, quantitative biodiversity measures. Deciding which measures to use requires land managers to understand why biodiversity is valued, which components of diversity are of most value, and how to measure these components feasibly. In this paper, the values associated with biodiversity and the principal indices available to forest managers are reviewed. Attention is drawn to the differing emphases of biodiversity indices-species richness, heterogeneity, and evenness-and to how diese differences address different values. Potential applications for these indices in forest management plans-including ways to use habitat models to approximate biodiversity-are also discussed.     

Optimal rotation age for carbon sequestration and biodiversity conservation in Vietnam

Biodiversity loss is a major problem in terms of loss of genetic and ecosystem services and more specifically via impacts on the livelihoods, food security and health of the poor. This study modeled forest management strategies that balance economic gains and biodiversity conservation benefits in planted tropical forests. A forest-level model was developed that maximized the net present value (NPV) from selling timber and carbon sequestration while maintaining a given level of biodiversity (as per the population density of birds). The model was applied to Eucalyptus urophylla planted forests in Yen Bai Province, Vietnam. It was found that the inclusion of biodiversity conservation in the model induces a longer optimal rotation age compared to the period that maximizes the joint value from timber and carbon sequestration (from 8 to 10.9 years). The average NPV when considering timber values plus carbon sequestration was 13 million Vietnamese Dong (VND) ha^− 1 (765 USD ha^− 1), and timber, carbon sequestration and biodiversity values were 11 million VND (676 USD) ha^− 1. Given this differential, governments in such tropical countries may need to consider additional incentives to forest owners if they are to encourage maximizing biodiversity and its associated benefits. The results also have some implications for implementing the climate control measure of “Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation-plus (REDD +)” in developing countries, i.e., payment for carbon sequestration and biodiversity benefits in planted forests.     

Biological diversity indicators: A comparison of Swedish forest commons and other forest ownership categories

Abstract

Research indicates that natural resources managed in common, resembling traditional commons such as the Swedish forest commons, could be a type of regime with the potential to stimulate successfully sustainable use conditions. This is supported by findings regarding the characteristics of Swedish forest commons, their claimed concern for the environment and relatively high proportion of old forest in two out of three regions. Swedish environmental policy is directed towards environmental quality objectives and the Sustainable Forests objective states, among other things, that biological diversity must be maintained and enhanced. Swedish National Forest Inventory data for the period 2003–2006 were used to analyse differences between forest commons in northern Sweden and other ownership categories regarding the proportion of forestland with a large deciduous element, the proportion of forest older than 80 years with a large (> 25%) deciduous element, the volume of dead wood and the proportion of forest older than 140 years, parameters corresponding to the interim targets for enhanced biological diversity. The results show no consistent differences in indicator variables between the forest commons and other ownership categories, signifying that forests managed in common have been conducted in ways promoting biodiversity more effectively than in other ownership categories. Further studies of different ownership categories regarding driving forces and forest status are warranted.     

Saproxylic beetle assemblages in the Mediterranean region: Impact of forest management on richness and structure

Forests cover almost 30% of the Mediterranean region today, yet forest management activities have influenced structure and composition of both natural and planted forests. To date no study has been conducted to evaluate the impact of forest management on saproxylic beetle assemblages, although it is known that the Mediterranean is a biodiversity hotspot with a long-lasting human pressure on natural habitats. We provide an overview of saproxylic beetle assemblages of three forest types (mature Pinus halepensis forests, mature Pinus brutia forests, young Quercus calliprinos forests) in the East Mediterranean region using a one-year sample from 12 forest plots located in the north of Israel.     

Biodiversity and Sustainable Forestry in Changing Landscapes-Principles and Southern Sweden as an Example

Abstract

We discuss die human impact on the forests of northwestern Europe, especially changes in disturbance regimes and changes in the density of important features for biodiversity preservation. In southern Sweden, human impacts have decreased densities of old (>150 years) living trees and large (DBH > 40 cm) dead trees to less than 1% of their original densities. In the same fashion, forest fires have decreased enormously in extent during the last 300 years, except in southwestern Sweden where the original fire frequency was presumably lower. These changes have had a tremendous impact on forest biodiversity. The number of extinctions in Sweden increases rapidly from the north to the south both for forest living species and other species. The number of threatened species shows a similar pattern and it is probable that many of these species belong to the extinction debt, especially those species that are dependent on sun-exposed old living and dead deciduous trees. Rapid restoration measures, such as increasing the number of old sun exposed oaks and large dead deciduous trees in the vicinity of existing hot-spots, may prevent some impending extinctions. Fire is important to use when managing forests for preserving biodiversity, especially in areas where fires more recently have been suppressed and where a relict fire-adapted fauna is Still present.