机载全波形 LiDAR 数据处理及林业应用研究综述

随着激光雷达技术的发展,近几年对小光斑全波形激光雷达数据处理方法及其应用的研究已成为国内外相关领域关注的热点。文中阐述小光斑全波形激光雷达的组成及数据特点,介绍波形数据的处理流程,并在此基础上概述小光斑全波形激光雷达波形数据在林业中的应用; 基于国内外研究现状,详细论述了波形分解和提取森林结构参数的理论及方法,分析了小光斑全波形激光雷达波形数据处理的局限性及其在林业中的应用前景。     

基于机载小光斑全波形LiDAR的亚热带林分特征反演

【目的】研究通过集成波形信号处理、空间解析和重构建模以及综合波形信息提取方法,探索基于小光斑全波形LIDAR特征变量高精度反演林分特征的新方法。【方法】以江苏南部丘陵地区的亚热带天然次生林为研究对象,在预处理和分析小光斑全波形 LIDAR 数据的基础上,首先基于体元空间框架分解和提取波形的振幅能量信息,并构建伪垂直波形模型;然后,从中提取空间位置信息(即点云)及几何辐射变量,计算 LiDAR点云和波形特征变量,并通过相关性分析筛选特征变量;最后,结合地面实测林分特征参数构建反演模型并验证精度。【结果】1)各 LiDAR特征变量对 Lorey’s树高的敏感性最高,对蓄积量和地上生物量次之,对胸高断面积最低,而返回脉冲总能量和返回脉冲峰值点数对胸高断面积的敏感性却高于其他林分特征因子;在点云特征变量组中,平均高、高度百分位数及冠层上部的返回点云密度与各林分特征之间的相关性较高,而在波形特征变量组中,能量中值高度的均值、返回脉冲长度的标准差和冠层粗糙度的标准差与各林分特征之间的相关性较高;2) Lorey’s 树高的模型估算精度最高( RMSE为实测均值的7.26%),而蓄积量、地上生物量和胸高断面积的模型估算精度略低且较相近( RMSE为实测均值的15.91%～19.82%);模型自变量的数量都在3个以内,选中的自变量为高度百分位数、冠层返回点云密度、返回脉冲长度和冠层粗糙度的标准差;3)各林分特征实测值与交叉验证估算值的拟合结果表明, Lorey’s树高的拟合效果最好(R2=0.85),地上生物量(R2=0.68)和蓄积量(R2=0.59)次之,而胸高断面积(R2=0.45)最低;4) Lorey’s 树高、蓄积量和地上生物量的空间分布状况基本一致,源于它们内在的相关性;相比其他3个特征变量,胸高断面积的空间分布不够连续,这可能是由于其预测模型精度较低所致。【结论】各林分特征综合回归模型的拟合效果和精度都高于仅使用点云特征变量拟合模型的精度,表明了波形特征变量提取森林中下层信息的潜力。点云特征变量描述了森林冠层及上部的三维结构及密度信息,而波形特征变量则获得了森林冠层及以下部分完整的垂直分布和能量信息,二者互补可提升林分特征反演的精度。     

基于星载雷达全波形数据估测森林结构参数研究综述

随着遥感技术的迅速发展, 基于星载雷达全波形数据来估测森林结构参数已成为一项突破性的技术。星载雷达对植被空间结构和地形探测能力很强, 能准确估测出森林结构参数, 为进一步研究森林碳储量和碳循环提供可靠的基础数据, 因此在林业中得到广泛应用。文中介绍了星载雷达系统ICESat-GLAS及其组成和工作原理, 系统总结了利用星载雷达数据估测森林结构参数的研究现状, 分析了星载雷达估测森林结构参数的局限性, 并对其研究趋势进行了展望。     

机载小光斑LIDAR的森林参数评估

使用小光斑机载激光雷达遥感得到森林结构参数是一个突破性技术。由于这个技术应用于树冠测量国内还相对比较新,所以需要大量的试验来整合实测数据和激光雷达遥感数据,并在后续分析和处理过程中获取森林应用急需的结构参数。随着数据存储能力和处理速度的提高,现在已经可以通过数字化采样来存储整个反射波形,而不仅仅是由系统提取出来的三维坐标(即离散点云)。通过对波形进行分析,可以更加详细地了解物体的纵向结构,比如表面倾斜、粗糙度、反射率。本文采用改进的EM算法分解原始波形数据,并得到植被高度、林冠下地形、冠层体积、地表反射率、植被反射率、森林郁闭度来描述森林的水平和垂直结构特性。     

利用三维激光扫描系统测量立木材积的方法

介绍三维激光扫描系统的组成及工作原理,并采用该方法对立木进行扫描,测量立木材积。与伐倒木实测数据进行对比,可以看出扫描数据完全能满足林业测量的精度要求,其扫描获得的立木材积数据完全可以替代传统方法测算的立木材积数据,使用立木模型建立材积表不再需要实地大量伐木,节省大量人力、物力及财力。应用三维激光扫描技术进行立木材积测定能较好的避免传统测定方法的不足,在未来的林业数字化测量中有广阔的应用前景。     

基于LiDAR离散点云能量信息的针叶林叶面积指数反演方法

叶面积指数是森林的重要结构参数,对于研究与植被叶片相关的生物物理活动具有重要意义。为了提高针叶林叶面积指数的估测精度,以吉林省长春市净月潭国家森林公园为研究区,通过对小光斑激光雷达离散点云进行滤波分类处理、拟合波形数据,从中提取5个能量参数,分别用于估测针叶林样方的叶面积指数,通过分析得出I2预测模型最好,R=0.911,P=0.968。结果表明小光斑激光雷达离散点云的能量信息能够较好地估计针叶林的叶面积指数,未来应加大小光斑激光雷达能量参数的应用。     

森林生态系统中枯落物分解实验方法的评析

基于枯落物分解原理,分析现有4种枯落物分解试验方法,即:野外分解袋法、实验室模拟分解法、现量估算法和综合平衡法各自的特点和适用范围。评价传统的研究枯落物分解的Olson指数衰减模型和修正Olson模型,结合东北林区的特点,建议一般采用野外分解袋法收集林区枯落物分解实验材料,延用Olson模型进行计算,优于其他三种方法。     

混合像元分解研究综述

混合像元是遥感领域研究的热点,混合像元的问题若得不到很好的解决,将会给遥感的后续应用研究带来较大的误差.本文简要介绍目前国内混合像元的主要分解方法:有线性光谱混合模型、非线性光谱混合模型、模糊监督分类法和神经网络模型分类法,并对其优缺点进行了简要说明.     

机载激光雷达森林参数估算方法综述

综述了机载激光雷达(LiDAR)在森林树高、郁闭度、蓄积量等参数估算中的应用,并对森林参数的估算精度及其影响因素进行了总结和分析。重点总结了目前机载激光雷达在森林参数估算中采用的如基于几何特性的点云数据滤波方法、基于强度信息森林参数提取方法、全波形数据的处理方法及L iDAR与多光谱影像数据融合关键技术,阐述了其现状及各自应用范围和存在的问题。     

Estimating percentile-based diameter distributions in uneven-sized Norway spruce stands using airborne laser scanner data

Abstract

A model for prediction of stand basal area and diameters at 10 percentiles of a basal area distribution was estimated from small-footprint laser scanner data from primeval conifer forest using partial least squares regression. The regression explained 44–80% and 67% of the variability of the 10 percentiles and stand basal area, respectively. The predicted percentiles, scaled by the predicted stand basal area, were used to compute diameter distributions. A cross-validation showed that the mean differences between the predicted and observed number of stems by diameter class were non-significant (p>0.05) for 22 of 29 diameter classes. Moreover, plot volume was calculated from the predicted diameter distribution and cross-validation revealed a non-significant deviation between predicted and observed volume of ?3.3% (of observed volume). An independent validation showed non-significant mean differences for 20 of 21 diameter classes for data corresponding to the model calibration data. Plot volumes calculated from the predicted diameter distributions deviated from observed volume by ?4.4%. The model reproduced diameter distributions corresponding to the model calibration data (uneven-sized forest) well. However, the model is not flexible enough to reproduce normal and uniform diameter distributions. Volume estimates derived from predicted diameter distributions were generally well determined, irrespective of the observed distribution.     

Estimation of above ground forest biomass from airborne discrete return laser scanner data using canopy-based quantile estimators

A conceptual model describing why laser height metrics derived from airborne discrete return laser scanner data are highly correlated with above ground biomass is proposed. Following from this conceptual model, the concept of canopy-based quantile estimators of above ground forest biomass is introduced and applied to an uneven-aged, mature to overmature, tolerant hardwood forest. Results from using the 0th, 25th, 50th, 75th and 100th percentiles of the distributions of laser canopy heights to estimate above ground biomass are reported. A comparison of the five models for each dependent variable group did not reveal any overt differences between models with respect to their predictive capabilities. The coefficient of determination (r ² ) for each model is greater than 0.80 and any two models may differ at most by up to 9%. Differences in root-mean-square error (RMSE) between models for above ground total, stem wood, stem bark, live branch and foliage biomass were 8.1, 5.1, 2.9, 2.1 and 1.1 Mg ha^?1, respectively.     

Using pre-classification to improve the accuracy of species-specific forest attribute estimates from airborne laser scanner data and aerial images

The aim of this study was to examine whether pre-classification (stratification) of training data according to main tree species and stand development stage could improve the accuracy of species-specific forest attribute estimates compared to estimates without stratification using k-nearest neighbors (k-NN) imputations. The study included training data of 509 training plots and 80 validation plots from a conifer forest area in southeastern Norway. The results showed that stratification carried out by interpretation of aerial images did not improve the accuracy of the species-specific estimates due to stratification errors. The training data can of course be correctly stratified using field observations, but in the application phase the stratification entirely relies on auxiliary information with complete coverage over the entire area of interest which cannot be corrected. We therefore tried to improve the stratification using canopy height information from airborne laser scanning to discriminate between young and mature stands. The results showed that this approach slightly improved the accuracy of the k-NN predictions, especially for the main tree species (2.6% for spruce volume). Furthermore, if metrics from aerial images were used to discriminate between pine and spruce dominance in the mature plots, the accuracy of volume of pine was improved by 73.2% in pine-dominated stands while for spruce an adverse effect of 12.6% was observed.     

Automated tree detection and crown delineation using airborne laser scanner data in heterogeneous East-Central Europe forest with different species mix

Identifying tree locations is a basic step in the derivation of other tree parameters using remote sensing techniques, particularly when using airborne laser scanning. There are several techniques for identifying tree positions. In this paper, we present a raster-based method for determining tree position and delineating crown coverage. We collected data from nine research plots that supported different mixes of species. We applied a raster-based method to raster layers with six different spatial resolutions and used terrestrial measurement data as reference data. Tree identification at a spatial resolution of 1.5 m was demonstrated to be the most accurate, with an average identification ratio (IR) of 95% and average detection ratio of 68% being observed. At a higher spatial resolution of 0.5 m, IR was overestimated by more than 600%. At a lower spatial resolution of 3 m, IR was underestimated at less than 44% of terrestrial measurements. The inventory process was timed to enable evaluation of the time efficiency of automatic methods.     

Application of an airborne laser scanner to forest road design with accurate earthwork volumes

In this study we developed a forest road design program based on a high-resolution digital elevation model (DEM) from a light detection and ranging (LIDAR) system. After a designer has located the intersection points on a horizontal plane, the model first generates the horizontal alignment and the ground profile. The model precisely generates cross-sections and accurately calculates earthwork volumes using a high-resolution DEM. The model then optimizes the vertical alignment based on construction and maintenance costs using a heuristic technique known as tabu search. As the distance between cross-sections affects the accuracy of earthwork volume calculations, the results were examined by comparing them with the exact earthwork volume calculated by the probabilistic Monte Carlo simulation method. The earthwork volumes calculated by the Pappus-based method were similar to those calculated by the Monte Carlo simulation when the distance between cross-sections was within 10m. The model was applied to a high-resolution DEM from the LIDAR of Capitol Forest in Washington State, USA. The model generated a horizontal alignment, length 827m, composed of five horizontal curves. We examined the number of grade change points. The results indicated that tabu search found the best solution ($61.42/m) with five grade change points. This was composed of two vertical curves that almost followed the ground profile. As the accuracy of a high-resolution DEM from LIDAR increases, the model would become a useful tool for a forest road designer because it eliminates or at least reduces the time-consuming process of road surveys.     

Predicting stand-thinning maturity from airborne laser scanning data

Abstract

Airborne laser scanning (ALS) has been used in recent years to acquire accurate remote-sensing material for carrying out practical forest inventories. Still, much of the information needed in forest management planning must be collected in the field. For example, forest management proposals are often determined in the field by an expert. In the present study, statistical features extracted from ALS data were used in logistic regression models and in nonparametric k-MSN estimation to predict the thinning maturity of stands. The research material consisted of 381 treewise measured circular plots in young and advanced thinning stands from the vicinity of Evo, in southern Finland. Timing of thinning was determined in the field by an expert and coded as a binary variable. Models were developed (1) to locate stands that will reach thinning maturity within the next 10-year period and (2) for stands in which thinning should be done immediately. For comparison purposes, logistic regression models were formulated from accurately field-measured stand characteristics. Logistic regression models based on ALS features predicted the thinning maturity with a classification accuracy of 79% (1) and 83% (2). The respective percentages were 66% and 83% with models based on field-measured stand characteristics and 70% and 86% with k-MSN. The study showed that ALS data can be used to predict stand-thinning maturity in a practical way.     

Comparison of nearest neighbour approaches for small area estimation of tree species-specific forest inventory attributes in central Europe using airborne laser scanner data

The three nonparametric k nearest neighbour (kNN) approaches, most similar neighbour inference (MSN), random forests (RF) and random forests based on conditional inference trees (CF) were compared for spatial predictions of standing timber volume with respect to tree species compositions and for predictions of stem number distributions over diameter classes. Various metrics derived from airborne laser scanning (ALS) data and the characteristics of tree species composition obtained from coarse stand level ground surveys were applied as auxiliary variables. Due to the results of iterative variable selections, only the ALS data proved to be a relevant predictor variable set. The three applied NN approaches were tested in terms of bias and root mean squared difference (RMSD) at the plot level and standard errors at the stand level. Spatial correlations were considered in the statistical models. While CF and MSN performed almost similarly well, large biases were observed for RF. The obtained results suggest that biases in the RF predictions were caused by inherent problems of the RF approach. Maps for Norway spruce and European beech timber volume were exemplarily created. The RMSD values of CF at the plot level for total volume and the species-specific volumes for European beech, Norway spruce, European silver fir and Douglas fir were 32.8, 80.5, 99.0, 137.0 and 261.1%. These RMSD values were smaller than the standard deviation, although Douglas fir volume did not belong to the actual response variables. All three non-parametric approaches were also capable of predicting diameter distributions. The standard errors of the nearest neighbour predictions on the stand level were generally smaller than the standard error of the sample plot inventory. In addition, the employed model-based approach allowed kNN predictions of means and standard errors for stands without sample plots.     

Comparing biophysical forest characteristics estimated from photogrammetric matching of aerial images and airborne laser scanning data

Recent development in aerial digital cameras and software facilitate the photogrammetric point cloud as a new data source in forest management planning. A total of 151 field training plots were distributed systematically within three predefined strata in a 852.6 ha study area located in the boreal forest in southeastern Norway. Stratum-specific regression models were fitted for six studied biophysical forest characteristics. The explanatory variables were various canopy height and canopy density metrics derived by means of photogrammetric matching of aerial images and small-footprint laser scanning. The ground sampling distance was 17 cm for the images and the airborne laser scanning (ALS) pulse density was 7.4 points m^–2. Resampled images were assessed to mimic acquisitions at higher flying altitudes. The digital terrain model derived from the ALS data was used to represent the ground surface. The results were evaluated using 63 independent test stands. When estimating height in young forest and mature forest on poor sites, the root mean square error (RMSE) values were slightly better using data from image matching compared to ALS. However, for all other combinations of biophysical forest characteristics and strata, better results were obtained using ALS data. In general, the best results were found using the highest image resolution.     

Predicting species-specific basal areas in urban forests using airborne laser scanning and existing stand register data

The aim of this work was to examine how well species-specific stand attributes can be predicted using a combination of airborne laser scanning (ALS) and existing stand register data in urban forests. In this context, the ability of three data combinations: ALS data and stand register data, ALS data and digital aerial images and all of these combined, was tested in the prediction of species-specific basal areas. We divided tree species into seven and three different tree species strata and applied two prediction methods: (1) regression method, in which the predicted total basal area was divided into tree species based on tree species proportions from stand register data, and (2) the nearest neighbour (NN) method, in which tree species proportions were used as predictor variables for species-specific basal areas. Prediction models were built based on training data of 205 field plots, and the accuracy of the models was tested based on validation data of 52 forests stands. Our results showed that species-specific predictions of seven tree species were more accurate when tree species proportions from stand register data were used in the prediction. Both the regression and the NN method provided reasonable accuracy. This study showed that tree species information from existing stand register data could be used as an alternative for aerial images in ALS-based forests inventories. The use of ALS data together with stand register data and small field data could also be economically beneficial in an inventory of urban forests.     

Using airborne laser scanning data for detecting canopy gaps and their understory type in mature boreal forest

• Introduction   

Canopy gap dynamics in old-growth boreal forests is a result of tree mortality caused by insects, diseases, or meteorological phenomena. Canopy gaps improve the possibilities of natural regeneration, and concentrations of decomposed deadwood are often found in these natural openings, which provide specific habitats for many deadwood-dependent species and organisms.