Simulating field-scale variability and precision management with a 3D hydrologic cropping systems model

Effective variable-rate nitrogen (N) management requires an understanding of temporal variability and field-scale spatial interactions (e.g. lateral redistribution of nutrients). Modeling studies, in conjunction with field data, can improve process understanding of agricultural management. CropSyst-Microbasin (CS-MB) is a fully distributed, 3-dimensional hydrologic cropping systems model that simulates small (10 s of hectares) heterogeneous agricultural watersheds with complex terrain. This study used a highly instrumented 10.9 ha watershed in the Inland Pacific Northwest, USA, to: (1) assess the accuracy of CS-MB simulations of field-scale variability in water transport and crop yield in comparison to observed field data, and (2) quantify differences in simulated yield and farm profitability between variable-rate and uniform fertilizer applications in low, average and high precipitation treatments. During water years 2012 and 2013 (a “water year” refers to October 1st through the following September 30th, where a given water year is named for the calendar year on September 30th), the model simulated surface runoff with a Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE) of 0.7, periodic soil water content (comparison to seasonal soil core measurements) with a root mean square error (RMSE) ≤0.05 m³ m^?3, and continuous soil water content (comparison to in situ soil sensors) at 15 of 20 microsites with NSE ≥0.4. The model predicted 2013 field variability in winter wheat yield with RMSE of 1100 kg ha^?1. Simulated uniform N management resulted in 0–35 kg ha^?1 greater field average yield in comparison to variable-rate management. The savings in fertilizer costs under variable-rate N management resulted in $23–$32 ha^?1 greater field average returns to risk. This study demonstrated the capacity of CS-MB to further understanding of simulated and observed field-scale spatial variability and simulated crop response to low, medium and high annual precipitation.     

A variable-rate decision support tool

Profitable precision or variable application of inputs depends on many factors; however, the inherent variability in a soil and or crop property and the relative responsiveness of yield to fertilizer inputs at different soil concentration levels are the most important factors in influencing economic gain. Generally, the greater is the spatial variation in the property influencing the input rate, the greater is the potential economic return from precision application compared to uniform application of an input. Based on a quantitative assessment of the spatial variation in soil properties that influence rates of input, a variable-rate decision support tool (VRDST) was developed to: (1) assess the potential profitability of variable-rate compared to uniform application and (2) identify the economic optimal uniform application rate if this is selected. The VRDST was evaluated using spatially distributed soil data from selected fields in North Carolina. Net return from variable-rate application and the economically optimal uniform rates are illustrated. Varying fertilizer cost, crop price and sampling costs greatly influenced net return from variable-rate application.     

Uniformity of wheat yield and quality using sensor assisted application of nitrogen

Proximal sensing, or obtaining information from close range, is a potentially useful tool for measuring the crop nitrogen status in real-time The objective of this study was to use proximal sensing of crop canopy spectral reflectance to evaluate variable-rate application of nitrogen in terms of its effect on yield and grain quality of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). The sensor used was the Hydro-Precise N-Sensor System. Yield and grain quality maps were used as a basis for full-scale field trials with winter wheat growing under four nitrogen application treatments: a large (274 kg ha^?1), recommended (167 kg ha^?1) and two sensor-assisted (167 kg ha^?1) rates. The recommended rate of 167 kg N ha^?1 was given in a three-split application that meets the present Danish regulations to reduce nitrogen leaching. These require arable farmers to decrease nitrogen fertilizer application to 90% of the economically optimal level. Each farm’s baseline is calculated to take into account land quality, land allocated to each crop, and crop rotation. In the two sensor-assisted applications the Hydro-Precise N-Sensor System directs the last two of the three-split N application. Grain samples were collected directly from the grain flow of a combine harvester and analysed for protein, water and starch content. Grain data were related to and compared with combine yield meter registrations. Within the field, the variances of protein yield (698–1208 kg ha^?1) and grain protein (9.5–13.4%) were large. The nitrogen application treatments affected the average protein content (10.5–12.3%) and grain yield (9.87–10.42 t ha^?1) strongly. The grain starch content was largest in the uniform and sensor applied systems and smallest in the high nitrogen application treatment. Applying nitrogen according to the Hydro-Precise N-Sensor System did not increase grain yield or the protein and starch contents. Minor differences only were observed in both protein content and yield between uniform-rate N application and sensor-based variable-rate N application.     

Long-term straw return influenced ammonium ion retention at the soil aggregate scale in an Anthrosol with rice-wheat rotations in China

Soil aggregates are an important controlling factor for the physico-chemical and biological processes such as ammonium (NH₄⁺) retention. Straw return to the field is increasingly recommended to promote soil carbon (C) sequestration and improve crop yields. However, the effects of straw return on NH₄⁺ retention at soil aggregate level in agricultural soils have seldom been investigated. This study aimed to evaluate the influences of long-term straw return on NH₄⁺ adsorption and fixation in microaggregates (<0.25 mm) with or without soil organic carbon (SOC) oxidization. Soil samples were collected from plots of three treatments, i.e., no fertilizer (CK), inorganic NPK fertilizers (NPK), and inorganic NPK fertilizers with rice straw return (NPKS), from a 20-year-old field trial with rice-wheat rotations in Taihu Lake Region, China. Soil aggregates were separated using wet-sieving method. The SOC of microaggregates was oxidized by H₂O₂. The results showed that long-term straw return significantly increased SOC and NH₄⁺ adsorption, but inhibited NH₄⁺ fixation in microaggregates. NH₄⁺ adsorption potential and strength - obtained from adsorption isotherms - increased, but NH₄⁺ fixation decreased along with increasing SOC in microaggregates, indicating the important role of SOC in NH₄⁺ adsorption and fixation. This was verified by the SOC oxidization test that showed a relative decrease in NH₄⁺ adsorption potential for the NPKS treatment and an increase in NH₄⁺ fixation in all three treatments. Therefore, long-term straw return influences NH₄⁺ adsorption and fixation by enhancing SOC content and could improve N availability for crop uptake and minimize applied N fertilizer losses in rice-wheat cropping systems.     

Variable rate nitrogen fertilizer response in wheat using remote sensing

Nitrogen (N) fertilizer application can lead to increased crop yields but its use efficiency remains generally low which can cause environmental problems related to nitrate leaching as well as nitrous oxide emissions to the atmosphere. The objectives of this study were to: (i) to demonstrate that properly identified variable rates of N fertilizer lead to higher use efficiency and (ii) to evaluate the capability of high spectral resolution satellite to detect within-field crop N response using vegetation indices. This study evaluated three N fertilizer rates (30, 70, and 90 kg N ha^?1) and their response on durum wheat yield across the field. Fertilizer rates were identified through the adoption of the SALUS crop model, in addition to a spatial and temporal analysis of observed wheat grain yield maps. Hand-held and high spectral resolution satellite remote sensing data were collected before and after a spring side dress fertilizer application with FieldSpec, HandHeld Pro^® and RapidEye?, respectively. Twenty-four vegetation indices were compared to evaluate yield performance. Stable zones within the field were defined by analyzing the spatial stability of crop yield of the previous 5 years (Basso et al. in Eur J Agron 51: 5, 2013). The canopy chlorophyll content index (CCCI) discriminated crop N response with an overall accuracy of 71 %, which allowed assessment of the efficiency of the second N application in a spatial context across each management zone. The CCCI derived from remotely sensed images acquired before and after N fertilization proved useful in understanding the spatial response of crops to N fertilization. Spectral data collected with a handheld radiometer on 100 grid points were used to validate spectral data from remote sensing images in the same locations and to verify the efficacy of the correction algorithms of the raw data. This procedure was presented to demonstrate the accuracy of the satellite data when compared to the handheld data. Variable rate N increased nitrogen use efficiency with differences that can have significant implication to the N₂O emissions, nitrate leaching, and farmer’s profit.     

Long-Term Effect of Fertilizer and Rice Straw on Mineral Composition and Potassium Adsorption in a Reddish Paddy Soil

Increasing K⁺ adsorption can be an effective alternative in building an available K pool in soils to optimize crop recovery and minimize losses into the environment. We hypothesized that long-term fertilization might change K⁺ adsorption because of changes in the chemical and mineralogical properties of a rice (Oryza sativa L.). The aims of this study were (i) to determine clay minerals in paddy soil clay size fractions using X-ray diffraction methods and a numerical diagram-decomposition method; (ii) to measure K⁺ adsorption isotherms before and after H₂O₂ oxidation of organic matter, and (iii) to investigate whether K⁺ adsorption is correlated with changes in soil chemical and mineral properties. The 30-yr long-term fertilization treatments caused little change in soil organic C (SOC) but a large variation in soil mineral composition. The whole-clay fraction (<5 μm) corresponded more to the fertilization treatment than the fine-clay fraction (<1 μm) in terms of percentage of illite peak area. The total percentage of vermiculite-chlorite peak area was significantly negatively correlated with the total percentage of illite peak area in the <5 μm soil particles (R=-0.946, P<0.0006). Different fertilization treatments gave significantly different results in K⁺ adsorption. The SOC oxidation test showed positive effects of SOC on K⁺ adsorption at lower K⁺ concentration (?120 mg L^?1) and negative effects at higher K⁺ concentration (240 mg L^?1). The K⁺ adsorption by soil clay minerals after SOC oxidization accounted for 60–158% of that by unoxidized soils, suggesting a more important role of soil minerals than SOC on K⁺ adsorption. The K⁺ adsorption potential was significantly correlated to the amount of poorly crystallized illite present (R=0.879, P=0.012). The availability of adsorbed K⁺ for plant growth needs further study.     

暗管农田不同类型肥料对向日葵生长及土壤氮素分布的影响

为了探明暗管排水条件下不同肥料对作物生长和土壤氮素环境的影响，明确盐渍化暗管排水农田合理的施肥模式，采用田间试验，设置普通尿素（CK）、控释肥（CF）和有机硅水溶性缓释肥（OF）3个处理，在保证施纯氮量均为225 kg·hm^-2的情况下，对各处理向日葵生育期间的生长状况、产量和氮肥利用效率，以及土壤、排水中的氮素含量进行分析。结果表明：与CK相比，CF和OF处理均可提高向日葵各生育期株高、叶面积指数、光合速率及产量。其中，CF增产效果最为显著，两年内较OF、CK分别提高了14.07%和40.54%。此外，CF处理有利于0~40 cm土层土壤氮素的持续有效供应，可增加植株氮素积累量、氮肥偏生产力和氮收获指数，更好地促进作物对养分的吸收利用。与CK、OF相比，CF可有效减少向日葵收获后期0~160 cm土层NO₃^--N残留量，降幅分别为14.92%和7.87%。两年试验中各处理之间的暗管排水量、排盐量较接近，但NO₃^--N及NH₄⁺-N流失量差异明显，其中OF、CK处理下的NO₃^--N流失量分别是CF的1.25、1.50倍，NH₄⁺-N流失量分别是CF的1.22、1.95倍。研究表明，控释肥可以更好地促进作物对养分的吸收利用，提高氮肥利用率，显著增加作物产量，同时还可以降低土壤中氮素的深层淋洗，减少氮素流失量，是暗管排水条件下较为适宜的肥料品种。     

基于光谱指数的冬小麦变量施肥冠层光谱特征研究及产量分析

 【目的】由适时获得的高光谱数据代替传统繁琐的实验室土壤养分测定数据来进行变量施肥，实现冬小麦高产优质的目标。【方法】本研究利用冬小麦起身期和拔节期冠层光谱数据，选用反映冬小麦长势信息的优化土壤调节植被指数（OSAVI，optimization of soil-adjusted vegetation index）和变量施肥模型进行变量施肥管理（变量区），以相邻地块常规非变量（均一）施肥区（对照区）为对照，研究了不同氮肥处理冬小麦冠层光谱特征及其施肥效应。【结果】变量施肥之后两种氮肥处理在敏感波段670 nm和760～900 nm处反射率差异明显，而670nm和760～900nm是氮素和冠层的敏感波段，说明进行变量施肥时，利用基于这两个波段组合的光谱指数OSAVI优于其它波段组合的光谱指数；SAVI不同生育时期的变化情况，反映了变量施肥在调控作物长势及群体结构上的优势；与对照区相比变量区提高产量达378.72 kg•ha-1，并降低了各小区产量之间的变异,变量区土壤硝态氮浓度降低，氮肥利用率提高，生态效益较为明显。【结论】该技术通过改善冬小麦群体质量，延缓了植株衰老，促进干物质和氮积累，增加冬小麦产量和氮肥利用率。     

Multi-scale assessment of the risk of soil salinization in an area of south-eastern Sardinia (Italy)

The assessment and mapping of the risk of soil salinization can contribute to sustainable land planning aimed at mitigating soil degradation and increasing crop production. A probabilistic approach, based on multivariate geostatistics was used to model the spatial variation of soil salinization risk at the landscape scale and to delineate the areas at high risk. The study site is a citrus growing area in south-eastern Sardinia (Italy). Electrical conductivity (EC_e), exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP), pH and ‘total clay + fine silt content’ (FIN), were measured in the topsoil (0–40 cm). The method requires indicator coding, which transforms measured data values into a binary variable according to critical thresholds. These latter were set to: 4 dS m^?1 for EC_e, 10% for ESP, 8 for pH, and 40% for ‘total clay + fine silt content’. To determine the probability of exceeding these critical values, multi-collocated indicator cokriging was used. Factorial kriging was also applied to identify one regionalized factor that summarizes the effects of the selected variables on soil salinization. Maps of each soil indicator and regionalized factor were produced to show the areas at risk of salinization. The results are valuable for planning the management of salinity.     

Variable-rate nitrogen fertilization of winter wheat under high spatial resolution

Variable-rate application (VRA) addresses in-field variation in soil nitrogen (N) availability and crop response, and as such is a tool for more effective site-specific management. This study assessed the performance of a VRA system for on-the-go delivery of granular fertilizer in 7-m wide and 200-m long strips of a 2.4-ha wheat field. A randomized complete block design consisted of three treatment strips (a preplant uniform application of 100 kg N/ha, a preplant + in-season uniform farmer rate of 212 kg N/ha and a preplant + in-season VRA) within four blocks. The VRA prototype consisted of Crop Circle ACS-430 active canopy sensors, a GeoScout X data logger that processed the geospatial data to convey a real-time N rate signal (1 Hz) to a Gandy Orbit Air 66FSC spreader through a Raven SCS 660 controller. Crop monitoring included analysis of in-season soil and plant samples, water balance and grain yield. VRA delivered an economic optimum N rate using 72% less in-season N or 38% less total N (131 kg N/ha) than that applied by the farmer (212 kg N/ha). The reduction of total N inputs came about without any yield losses and translated to 58% N-use efficiency in comparison to 44% of the farmer practice and 52% of the preplant control. VRA also provided a much higher revenue over fertilizer costs, €68/ha and €118/ha higher than the preplant control and the farmer practice, respectively. The return of VRA per unit of N was equal to that of the large preplant application due to low leaching losses. Overall, the high-resolution VRA was superior in terms of environmental benefits and profitability with the least uncertainty to the farmer.     

不同施肥水平对长期麦豆轮作体系土壤氮素及产量的影响

探索施肥对长期轮作下土壤氮素变化及产量的影响,对优化氮素管理具有重要作用。通过优化施肥方案,对关中地区冬小麦-夏大豆长期轮作模式下作物产量及土壤全氮、硝态氮、铵态氮、微生物生物量氮含量动态变化进行定位研究。结果表明：土壤全氮、硝态氮、铵态氮含量秋冬季较高,春夏季较低,微生物生物量氮变化趋势与之相反。土壤中氮素各组分含量均表现为表层土高于下层土,土壤全氮、硝态氮、铵态氮平均含量及铵态氮层化比、土壤硝态氮与铵态氮比值随着化肥施用量的增加而增加,硝态氮层化比随施肥量的增加而减少。与不施肥相比,优化施肥促进微生物生物量氮含量的提升,而常规施肥导致微生物生物量氮含量下降。试验连续运行9 a后,施肥导致土壤pH和水分含量下降,对小麦、大豆产量有显著影响,与不施肥处理相比,小麦、大豆平均增产50.20%、45.29%。麦豆长期轮作种植模式下优化施肥在基本保证作物产量的同时,降低土壤中全氮、硝态氮、铵态氮含量,增加微生物生物量氮含量,减少化肥施用量。     

Optimization of corn plant population according to management zones in Southern Brazil

Precision agriculture relies on site-specific interventions determined by the spatial variability of factors driving plant growth. The main objective of this study was to assess the efficiency of variable-rate seeding of corn (Zea mays L.) with delineated management zones. This study involved two experiments carried out in Não-Me-Toque, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. For the first experiment, carried out in 2009/2010, management zones were delineated by the farmer’s knowledge of the crop field. The field was split into low (LZ), medium (MZ) and high (HZ) crop performance zones. In the second experiment, carried out in 2010/2011, management zones were delineated by overlaying standardized yield data from nine crop seasons (seven of soybean and two of corn). The experiment was carried out with a randomized block design with three management zones and five corn seeding rates ranging from 50 000 to 90 000 seeds per ha^?1. The soil was a Rhodic Hapludox with a subtropical climate. Optimization of the corn plant population within the field increased grain yield compared to the reference plant population (70 000 plants ha^?1). Yield increases in the LZ, due to corn plant population reduction in relation to the target population, were 1.20 and 1.90 Mg ha^?1 for first and second experiments, respectively. This resulted in economic gains of 19.8 and 28.7 %, respectively. Yield increases in the HZ were 0.89 and 0.94 Mg ha^?1, respectively, and were due to an increase in plant population in relation to the target population. This resulted in economic gains of 5.6 and 6.6 % for the first and second experiments, respectively. In the MZ, the adjustment of the target plant population was not necessary. Optimizing corn population according to management zones is a promising tool for precision agriculture in Southern Brazil.     

Site-specific management of limiting nutrients in peanut (Arachis hypogaea) on the Texas High Plains

Nutrient data obtained from soil chemical tests were analyzed in an activity analysis model to identify limiting factors in peanut production on the Texas High Plains. A production function was estimated for the study field, and limiting factors were identified at individual sites where the production function indicated that yield did not respond. The estimated production function also enabled us to conduct a cost-return analysis of variable- and blanket-rate fertilizer applications. The results showed that peanut yields did not respond to most of the nutrients included in the study, which confirmed conclusions from previous studies in the study region. Calcium and nitrogen were the only two limiting factors identified in this study. Significant economic returns could be obtained by site-specific fertilizer application. The average economic return from variable-rate calcium fertilizer application was $27.84 ha⁻¹ and from blanket-rate it was $10.73 ha⁻¹. The return from variable-rate nitrogen fertilizer application was about $20 ha⁻¹ and from a blanket-rate it was about $14 ha⁻¹. There seems to be quite a strong economic incentive to adopt variable-rate application for calcium and nitrogen fertilizer application.

商品有机肥替代化肥对作物产量和土壤肥力的影响

【目的】通过连续3年定位监测华北平原冬小麦-夏玉米轮作区商品有机肥部分替代化肥施用后作物产量和土壤肥力的变化,探究商品有机肥替代化肥对作物产量及土壤肥力的影响,以期为该区域商品有机肥的科学施用提供理论依据。【方法】试验开始于2011年,于山东禹城设置3个不同施肥处理：不施肥对照（T1）;单施化肥（T2）;等养分条件下,有机肥部分替代化肥（T3）（氮、磷和钾替代比例分别为11.3%、13.7%和58.8%）。于2011-2014年连续3年进行田间取样,分析冬小麦-夏玉米轮作制度下,不同施肥处理对作物产量、产量构成以及土壤有机碳、全氮、速效磷、速效钾含量的影响。【结果】（1）商品有机肥部分替代化肥施用后,冬小麦和夏玉米3年平均产量分别为7 700和9 175 kg·hm^-2,与当地栽培条件下高产水平相当,但与单施化肥处理相比差异不显著。（2）与单施化肥相比,商品有机肥替代化肥处理对产量构成因素（有效穗数、穗粒数和千粒重）未表现出显著影响。（3）商品有机肥部分替代化肥施用3年后,与单施化肥相比,土壤有机碳增加了19.5%、土壤全氮提高了12.3%,显著高于单施化肥处理。【结论】商品有机肥部分替代化肥能保证华北平原小麦-玉米轮作体系的作物稳产、高产,并且能够培肥地力,有利于土壤可持续利用。     

Sensing soil and foliar phosphorus fluorescence in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Zea mays</Emphasis> in response to large phosphorus additions

Additions of large loads of phosphorus (P) enriched animal manure to soils and the persistence of their environmental impact have been associated with continued water quality impairment in regions of high density of confined animal feeding operations. Foliar P in corn (Zea mays L.) and changes in labile P in Aquic Hapludults were determined following P application of 0–560 kg P ha^?1 as KH₂PO₄ and an application of Fe³⁺ (150 mg Fe³⁺ kg^?1) in field mini-lysimeters to develop calibrations of soil and plant nutritional responses. X-ray fluorescence (XRF) scanning of uppermost leaves of plants at the V2, V5, and V8 stages showed that foliar P proportionally increased with addition rates. Exchangeable and enzyme-labile P forms were effective indicators of foliar XRFS-P for up to 30 days after emergence. Phosphorus calibration curves developed for flag leaves showed that spatial distribution of foliar P (3.6, 4.2, and 5.3 g kg^?1) corresponded to field zones treated with 0, 15, and 30 kg P ha^?1 as dairy manure P for the past 18 years. Up-to-date crop uptake and availability of P in these Hapludults were best described by a square root function of soil XRFS-P and total exchangeable inorganic P (r² = 0.4; RMSE = 419 and 422 g ha^?1, respectively). Therefore, a timely knowledge of canopy P status and its linkage to actual soil P status supports in situ element-specific sensing and precision nutrient management in order to manage the declining use-efficiency in crops and reduce potential loss to the environment.     

秸秆还田条件下不同供钾能力土壤水稻、油菜、小麦钾肥减量研究

【目的】研究不同供钾能力土壤在秸秆还田条件下钾肥减量施用对水稻、油菜、小麦的产量、钾素吸收量及钾肥利用率的影响,计算秸秆还田条件下3种作物的钾肥适宜用量,为秸秆还田条件下钾肥资源的合理利用及农田钾素养分管理和调控提供理论依据。【方法】2013—2015年在湖北省38个县(市)的水稻、油菜及小麦3种作物上开展秸秆还田钾肥减量施用田间试验。试验设置6个处理,分别为(1)对照,不施钾(CK);(2)施用全量化学钾肥(+K);(3)秸秆还田处理(+S);(4)秸秆还田配施50%钾肥(S+1/2K);(5)秸秆还田配施75%钾肥(S+3/4K);(6)秸秆还田配施全量钾肥(S+K)。参考不施钾肥处理的作物相对产量(即CK处理产量/+K处理产量)将土壤供钾能力分为高、中、低3个水平。【结果】不同供钾水平土壤施钾和秸秆还田均能不同程度增加水稻、油菜和小麦的产量和地上部钾素吸收量。其中,高供钾能力的土壤水稻、油菜和小麦仅通过上季作物秸秆全量还田即可满足作物高产的钾素需求;中等供钾能力的土壤3种作物可在秸秆还田条件下减少50%钾肥用量;而低供钾能力的土壤,秸秆还田条件下水稻季可减少25%钾肥用量,油菜和小麦季可减少50%钾肥用量。从土壤钾素表观平衡来看,秸秆还田可缓解土壤钾素亏缺,其中油菜季平均盈余量为14.1—152.6kg K_2O·hm~(-2),小麦季平均盈余量为25.5—95.9 kg K_2O·hm~(-2),水稻季则仍表现为钾素亏缺。在考虑秸秆钾素投入量的情况下,通过一元二次方程和线性加平台方程拟合秸秆还田条件下钾肥用量与作物产量之间的关系,以+K处理产量为标准得到秸秆还田条件下的适宜钾肥用量。结果表明,在前茬作物秸秆全量还田的条件下,供钾能力为中、高等水平的土壤3种作物钾肥适宜施用量为20—33 kg K_2O·hm~(-2),油菜钾肥施用量低于水稻和小麦;而供钾能力低的土壤上,秸秆还田土壤钾肥适宜施用量为45—49 kg K_2O·hm~(-2),油菜钾肥推荐用量高于水稻和小麦。与目前钾肥经济施用量60 kg K_2O·hm~(-2)相比,3种作物在供钾能力为中、高等水平的土壤通过秸秆还田可节省钾肥45.0%—66.7%,供钾能力低的土壤也可节省钾肥18.3%—25.0%。【结论】秸秆还田条件下水稻、油菜及小麦可以在减少18.3%—66.7%钾肥用量的同时保证作物产量,钾肥施用量减少的比例应根据土壤供钾水平进行调整。     

长期施肥对黄壤性水稻土磷平衡及农学阈值的影响

【目的】研究长期施肥条件下土壤有效磷（Olsen-P）的演变特征及土壤磷素的累积状况,分析土壤磷素累积与土壤有效磷的响应关系,明确Olsen-P的农学阈值及合理磷肥施用量,为西南黄壤地区科学施用磷肥提供理论依据。【方法】以贵州黄壤肥力与肥料长期定位试验为平台,选择试验中6个处理分别是不施肥（CK）、偏施氮钾肥（NK）、常量氮磷钾肥（NPK）、常量有机肥（M）、减1/2有机肥+减1/2氮磷钾肥（1/2 M +1/2 NPK）和常量有机肥+常量氮磷钾肥（MNPK）。分析西南黄壤性水稻土19年（1995-2013）土壤Olsen-P含量与植株吸磷量,研究土壤Olsen-P的变化规律及土壤累积磷盈亏状况,通过Mitscherlich方程模拟作物相对产量对土壤Olsen-P的响应关系,明确西南黄壤性水稻土的农学阈值,并分析Olsen-P与施肥量之间的关系。【结果】长期施用磷肥处理可显著提高土壤Olsen-P含量,各施磷处理Olsen-P年增长速率在0.72-2.47 mg·kg^-1·a^-1,其中MNPK处理Olsen-P增长速率最大,NPK处理最小,主要与施肥量的高低有关;有机肥配施化学磷肥比单施化学磷肥和单施有机肥更能有效地促进作物对磷素的吸收;不施磷处理土壤磷素一直处于亏缺状态,施磷处理土壤磷素盈余量为176-1 200 kg·hm^-2,其中MNPK处理磷素盈余量最高;土壤累积磷盈余量与土壤Olsen-P增量呈显著线性相关,土壤中磷素每盈余100 kg·hm^-2,NPK、M、1/2M+1/2NPK、MNPK处理Olsen-P含量分别提高4.0、2.0、3.2和2.0 mg·kg^-1;土壤每年磷盈亏和Olsen-P含量与磷肥施用量呈极显著正相关关系,磷肥用量（纯P）17.4 kg·hm^-2时土壤磷盈亏呈持平状态,西南黄壤性水稻土Olsen-P的农学阈值为15.8 mg·kg^-1;对应的施肥量（纯P）为每年37.2 kg·hm^-2·a^-1。【结论】土壤有效磷随土壤磷素盈余而变化,同时与磷素投入量密切相关,当磷肥用量（纯P）为17.4 kg·hm^-2·a^-1土壤磷素呈持平状态。当磷肥用量（纯P）为37.2 kg·hm^-2·a^-1时,可获得较高作物产量,磷肥当季利用率高,且磷素在土壤中累积较少。当磷肥用量（纯P）大于37.2 kg·hm^-2·a^-1时,作物产量对磷肥用量无响应,大量磷素累积在土壤中,增加土壤磷素的流失风险。土壤中累积磷盈余量一定的情况下,西南黄壤性水稻土长期单施化学磷肥提升土壤Olsen-P的速率大于施用有机肥处理。     

Integrating remote sensing information with crop model to monitor wheat growth and yield based on simulation zone partitioning

Research into crop growth models at the spatial scale is of great significance for evaluating crop growth, predicting grain yield and studying global climate change. Coupling spatial remote sensing (RS) data can effectively promote the simulation of growth models at spatial scales. However, the integration of RS data and crop models to produce a coupled model based on pixel by pixel requires a large amount of calculations. Simulation zone partitioning is used to separate and cluster the large area into a few relatively uniform zones. Then, the growth model can run on the basis of these units. This method both reflects spatial heterogeneity and avoids repeated simulations of regions with similar attributes, improving the simulation efficiency. In this study, simulation partitioning was performed using soil nutrient indices (organic matter content, total nitrogen content and available potassium content) and corresponding spatial characteristics of wheat growth, as indicated by RS data. A coupled model, integrating RS information and the WheatGrow model, using vegetation indices as the coupling parameters (based on the Particle Swarm Optimization algorithm and PROSAIL model), was developed. The aim was to realize accurate prediction of wheat growth parameters and grain yield at the spatial scale. Good zone partitions were obtained by partitioning with the spatial combination of soil nutrient indices and the wheat canopy vegetation index, calculated during the main growth (jointing, heading and filling) stages. The variation coefficients of each index within individual simulation sub-zones were much smaller than those of the indices across the whole area. An analysis of variance showed that the indices were significantly different between the simulation sub-zones, which indicated that appropriate simulated sub-zones had been defined. The minimum root mean square error of the leaf area index, leaf nitrogen accumulation and yield between the predicted values and the values simulated by the coupled model were 0.92, 1.12 g m^?2, and 409.70 kg ha^?1, respectively, which were obtained when the soil-adjusted vegetation index was used as a partitioning zone and assimilating parameter. These results demonstrated that the coupled model of the crop model and RS data, based on the simulation sub-zones had a good prediction accuracy. The results provide important technical support for increasing model efficiency, when crop models need to be applied at the spatial scale.     

Spatial variability of soil properties and yield of a grazed alfalfa pasture in Brazil

Knowledge of the spatial variability of soil properties and of forage yield is needed for informed use of soil inputs such as variable rate technology (VRT) for lime and fertilizers. The objective of this research was to map and evaluate the spatial variability of soil properties, yield, lime and fertilizer needs and economic return of an alfalfa pasture. The study was conducted in a 5.3 ha irrigated alfalfa pasture in Sao Carlos, SP, Brazil that was directly grazed and intensively managed in a 270-paddock rotational system. Alfalfa shoot dry matter yield was evaluated before grazing. Soil samples were collected at 0–0.2 m depth, and each sample represented a group of 2 or 3 paddocks. Apparent soil electrical conductivity (ECa) was measured with a contact sensor. The cost of producing 1 ha of alfalfa was estimated from the amount of lime and fertilizer needed and was then used to estimate the total cost of production for the dairy system. The alfalfa dry matter yield was used to simulate the pasture stocking rate, milk yield, gross revenue and net profit. The spatial variability of soil properties and site-specific liming and fertilizer needs were modeled using semi-variograms with VESPER software, the soil fertility information and economic return were modeled with SPRING software. The results showed that geostatistics and GIS were effective tools for revealing soil and pasture spatial variability and supporting management strategies. Soil nutrients were used to classify the soil spatial distribution map and design site-specific lime and fertilizer application maps. Spatial variation in forage and spatial estimates of stocking and milk yield are adequate pasture management tools. Spatial analyses of needs, forage availability and economic return are management tools for avoiding economic problems, as well as potential environmental problems, caused by unbalanced nutrient supplies and over- or under-grazing.     

Monitoring of soil organic carbon over 10 years in a Mediterranean silvo-pastoral system: potential evaluation for differential management

Soil organic carbon (SOC) plays a vital role in determining the susceptibility to land degradation. The recommended procedure for the recovery of the characteristic poor soils of the Southern region of Portugal is the installation of grazed permanent pastures and increase of soil fertility. The objectives of this study were: (i) to identify the spatial and temporal patterns of soil nutrients at four points in time over a 10-year period in a perennial pastureland; (ii) to test new tools for survey of the spatial variability of soil nutrients; (iii) to evaluate the potential for differential organic management. A 6 ha permanent bio-diverse pasture field, grazed by sheep and improved by annual application of super phosphate fertilizer, was installed on a shallow soil in Mediterranean conditions. Spatial variability and temporal stability of topsoil macronutrients (phosphorus, nitrogen and potassium), SOC and pH were measured. The results indicate that SOC and pH have great potential for implementing differential management. In the case of SOC, the management classes map shows that over 80 % of the area has temporal stability, while more than 50 % of the area has low levels of SOC (<10 g kg^?1), justifying the potential for differential application of C-rich organic soil amendments. The geospatial measurements of apparent soil electrical conductivity (EC_a) and NDVI index showed significant correlation between these parameters and soil properties, revealing the potential of these tools for producing detailed soil maps, decisive for understanding the changes in soil properties under sustainable management systems.