Requirement of the activation-induced deaminase (AID) gene for immunoglobulin gene conversion

Three phenotypically distinct processes-somatic hypermutation, gene conversion, and switch recombination-remodel the functionally rearranged immunoglobulin (Ig) loci in B cells. Somatic hypermutation and switch recombination have recently been shown to depend on the activation-induced deaminase (AID) gene product. Here, we show that the disruption of the AID gene in the chicken B cell line DT40 completely blocks Ig gene conversion and that this block can be complemented by reintroduction of the AID complementary DNA. This demonstrates that the AID master gene controls all B cell-specific modifications of vertebrate Ig genes.     

Uracil DNA glycosylase activity is dispensable for immunoglobulin class switch

Activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID) is required for the DNA cleavage step in immunoglobulin class switch recombination (CSR). AID is proposed to deaminate cytosine to generate uracil (U) in either mRNA or DNA. In the second instance, DNA cleavage depends on uracil DNA glycosylase (UNG) for removal of U. Using phosphorylated histone gamma-H2AX focus formation as a marker of DNA cleavage, we found that the UNG inhibitor Ugi did not inhibit DNA cleavage in immunoglobulin heavy chain (IgH) locus during CSR, even though Ugi blocked UNG binding to DNA and strongly inhibited CSR. Strikingly, UNG mutants that had lost the capability of removing U rescued CSR in UNG-/- B cells. These results indicate that UNG is involved in the repair step of CSR yet by an unknown mechanism. The dispensability of U removal in the DNA cleavage step of CSR requires a reconsideration of the model of DNA deamination by AID.     

Antibody class switching mediated by yeast endonuclease-generated DNA breaks

Antibody class switching in activated B cells uses class switch recombination (CSR), which joins activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID)-dependent double-strand breaks (DSBs) within two large immunoglobulin heavy chain (IgH) locus switch (S) regions that lie up to 200 kilobases apart. To test postulated roles of S regions and AID in CSR, we generated mutant B cells in which donor Smu and accepter Sgamma1 regions were replaced with yeast I-SceI endonuclease sites. We found that site-specific I-SceI DSBs mediate recombinational IgH locus class switching from IgM to IgG1 without S regions or AID. We propose that CSR evolved to exploit a general DNA repair process that promotes joining of widely separated DSBs within a chromosome.     

Strand-biased spreading of mutations during somatic hypermutation

Somatic hypermutation (SHM) is a major means by which diversity is achieved in antibody genes, and it is initiated by the deamination of cytosines to uracils in DNA by activation-induced deaminase (AID). However, the process that leads from these initiating deamination events to mutations at other residues remains poorly understood. We demonstrate that a single cytosine on the top (nontemplate) strand is sufficient to recruit AID and lead to mutations of upstream and downstream A/T residues. In contrast, the targeting of cytosines on the bottom strand by AID does not lead to substantial mutation of neighboring residues. This strand asymmetry is eliminated in mice deficient in mismatch repair, indicating that the error-prone mismatch repair machinery preferentially targets top-strand uracils in a way that promotes SHM during the antibody response.     

Eression of allelic immunoglobulin in homozygous rabbits injected with RNA extract

Ribonucleic acid extracts obtained from lymph nodes of immunized rabbits homozygous for the b(4)or b(5)allele of light chain immunoglobulin allotypes were injected intravenously into nonimmunized rabbits homozygous for the alternate allele. Approximately 30 percent of the plaque-forming cells in the spleen yielded plaques with immunoglobulin M antibody possessing the allotype of the RNA donor. The allotype of the RNA donor was also found in the IgG immunoglobulin of lymphoid cell lysates as well as in the IgG isolated from the serum. These results suggest that the injected RNA has an informational role in the in vivo synthesis of immunoglobulins by host lymphoid cells.     

A primitive T cell-independent mechanism of intestinal mucosal IgA responses to commensal bacteria

The immunoglobulin A (IgA) is produced to defend mucosal surfaces from environmental organisms, but host defenses against the very heavy load of intestinal commensal microorganisms are poorly understood. The IgA against intestinal commensal bacterial antigens was analyzed; it was not simply "natural antibody" but was specifically induced and responded to antigenic changes within an established gut flora. In contrast to IgA responses against exotoxins, a significant proportion of this specific anti-commensal IgA induction was through a pathway that was independent of T cell help and of follicular lymphoid tissue organization, which may reflect an evolutionarily primitive form of specific immune defense.     

Regulation of B versus T lymphoid lineage fate decision by the proto-oncogene LRF

Hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow give rise to lymphoid progenitors, which subsequently differentiate into B and T lymphocytes. Here we show that the proto-oncogene LRF plays an essential role in the B versus T lymphoid cell-fate decision. We demonstrate that LRF is key for instructing early lymphoid progenitors in mice to develop into B lineage cells by repressing T cell-instructive signals produced by the cell-fate signal protein, Notch. We propose a new model for lymphoid lineage commitment, in which LRF acts as a master regulator of the cell's determination of B versus T lineage.     

Antireceptor antiserum causes specific inhibition of reactivity to rat histocompatibility antigens

The antigen receptor of lymphocytes destined to form antibody appears to have the characteristics of the immunoglobulin produced. Antibody directed against the combining region of this immunoglobulin should interact with the combining region of the cell receptor for the antigen. Purified Lewis rat alloantibody prepared against Brown Norway (BN) rat histocompatibility antigens was used to immunize L x BN F(1) hybrids. The resultant antiserum has anti-receptor activity because (i) it yields precipitin lines in gel diffusion when reacted against the immunizing alloantibody; (ii) it inhibits the hemagglutinin antibody response of Lewis rats to BN histocompatibility antigens; and (iii) it inhibits the local graft-versus-host response of Lewis lymphoid cells against BN antigens. This suggests that antireceptor antibody may inhibit cell-mediated responses as well as antibody responses to histocompatibility antigens and may play a role in the regulation of immune responses to such antigens.     

牛瘤胃微生物菌群变化及其影响因素

牛的瘤胃中富含各种微生物,微生物与瘤胃之间互生互利,对于牛的生长发育具有重要作用。本研究对牛瘤胃中常见的微生物菌群及其变化特征进行了综述,对影响牛瘤胃中微生物菌群变化的因素进行分析,以期为牛的生长发育、疾病防控和质量安全提供科学有效的指导。     

AID-driven deletion causes immunoglobulin heavy chain locus suicide recombination in B cells

Remodeling of immunoglobulin genes by activation-induced deaminase (AID) is required for affinity maturation and class-switch recombination in mature B lymphocytes. In the immunoglobulin heavy chain locus, these processes are predominantly controlled by the 3' cis-regulatory region. We now show that this region is transcribed and undergoes AID-mediated mutation and recombination around phylogenetically conserved switchlike DNA repeats. Such recombination, which we term locus suicide recombination, deletes the whole constant region gene cluster and thus stops expression of the immunoglobulin of the B cell surface, which is critical for B cell survival. The frequency of this event is approaching that of class switching and makes it a potential regulator of B cell homeostasis.     

免疫途径对雏鸡分泌型免疫球蛋白A细胞分布的影响

通过饮水、滴鼻和肌肉注射用鸡新城疫弱毒苗免疫雏鸡，以葡萄球菌Ａ蛋白－辣根过氧化酶（ＳＰＡ－ＨＲＰ）和兔抗鸡分泌型免疫球蛋白Ａ（ＳＩｇＡ）间接组化染色，显示消化道相关淋巴组织（ＧＡＬＴ）和呼吸道相关淋巴组织（ＲＡＬＴ）中ＳＩｇＡ细胞的生成和分布。结果表明：滴鼻和饮水免疫组雏鸡ＧＡＬＴ和ＲＡＬＴ中产生ＳＩｇＡ细胞较早、较多，并于首免后２４ｄ和３０ｄ达到最高峰；肌肉注射组雏鸡ＳＩｇＡ细胞在各相应部位仅零星存在，其数量在整个免疫期间变化不显著。作者还对３种免疫途径与粘膜免疫过程中ＳＩｇＡ细胞的产生、分布、数量变化及其增长与消退规律的影响进行了讨论     

Bone marrow: the bursa equivalent in man?

Human bone marrow lymphoid cells, particularly when enriched with plasma cells, as in multiple myeloma, respond to pokeweed mitogen and to antiserum to immunoglobulin but not to phytohemagglutinin. Cells of patients with X-linked agammaglobulinemia of the bursal deficient type failed to respond to either pokeweed or to the antiserum to immunoglobulin. Leukocytes of the agammaglobulinemia patients however responded in a normal fashion to phytohemagglutinin. Just as the in vitro response to phytohemagglutinin is taken as an index of the thymus-dependent system, the in vitro response to both antiserum to immunoglobulin and pokeweed may be considered an index for the bursaldependent system. Human bone marrow, therefore, contains bursal cells and probably very few or no thymus cells.     

Stable RNA/DNA hybrids in the mammalian genome: inducible intermediates in immunoglobulin class switch recombination

Although it is well established that mammalian class switch recombination is responsible for altering the class of immunoglobulins, the mechanistic details of the process have remained unclear. Here, we show that stable RNA/DNA hybrids form at class switch sequences in the mouse genome upon cytokine-specific stimulation of class switch in primary splenic B cells. The RNA hybridized to the switch DNA is transcribed in the physiological orientation. Mice that constitutively express an Escherichia coli ribonuclease H transgene show a marked reduction in RNA/DNA hybrid formation, an impaired ability to generate serum immunoglobulin G antibodies, and significant inhibition of class switch recombination in their splenic B cells. These data provide evidence that stable RNA/DNA hybrids exist in the mammalian nuclear genome, can serve as intermediates for physiologic processes, and are mechanistically important for efficient class switching in vivo.     

An essential role for BAFF in the normal development of B cells through a BCMA-independent pathway

The B cell activating factor BAFF (BlyS/TALL-1/zTNF4) is a tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-related ligand that promotes B cell survival and binds to three receptors (BCMA, TACI, and the recently described BAFF-R). Here we report an absolute requirement for BAFF in normal B cell development. Examination of secondary lymphoid organs from BAFF-deficient mice revealed an almost complete loss of follicular and marginal zone B lymphocytes. In contrast, mice lacking BCMA had normal-appearing B lymphocyte compartments. BAFF therefore plays a crucial role in B cell development and can function through receptors other than BCMA.     

基于体细胞评分的中国荷斯坦牛乳房炎抗性全基因组关联分析

【目的】通过全基因组关联分析定位和筛选相关基因,寻找与奶牛乳房炎抗性相关的分子标记,以进行下一步的标记辅助选择。【方法】对2 093头北京地区中国荷斯坦牛SCC进行对数转化,依据LASCS=log_2∑SCC/n和SCS-SD=log_2∑(scc-u)~2/n-1将测定日记录SCC转化为服从正态分布的统计量LASCS和SCS-SD。同时将LASCS和SCS-SD进行半个标准差(half of standard deviation,0.5 SD)和一个标准差(one standard deviation,1 SD)的划分,将牛只划分为乳房炎易感牛(Case)及抗性牛(Control)。将54 001个SNPs进行质控,剔除不符合条件的SNPs,剔除的条件是:SNPs的call rate90%,严重偏离哈迪-温伯格平衡(HWE)(P10E-6)和最小等位基因频率(MAF)0.03。然后通过ROADTRIPS软件(版本1.2)的3种检验:RM检验、RCHI检验和RW检验对LASCS和SCS-SD进行Case-control方法的全基因组关联分析。通过Bonferroni方法对关联分析结果进行校正,并针对牛的每条染色体分别制定各条染色体的显著水平,以0.05分别除每条染色体上的SNP数目,作为每条染色体的显著性水平。同时,将所有个体的LASCS和SCS-SD作为连续性状通过线性混合模型进行全基因组关联分析,将结果进行比较,以确定显著SNPs的位置。【结果】通过0.5 SD/1 SD的标准将群体划分后,分别有1371/708个个体用于LASCS性状的关联分析,和1385/716个个体用于SCS-SD性状的关联分析。通过质控将不符合的SNPs剔除之后,共有43781/43671(43817/43704)个SNPs分别可用于LASCS(SCS-SD)的0.5 SD/1 SD的关联分析。对LASCS和SCS-SD进行全基因组关联分析,经染色体水平上的Bonferroni校正(P0.05),共发现5个SNPs达到显著水平,其中3个SNPs定位到X染色体上,其它2个SNPs分别定位到7和28号染色体上。通过对基于0.5 SD的SCS-SD的乳房炎抗性进行全基因组关联分析发现一个全基因组水平显著的SNP(Hapmap48573-BTA-104531,P=1.11E-06)位于X染色体上。结果发现,被检测到5个显著的SNPs中,X染色体的显著SNPs(Hapmap48573-BTA-104531和Hapmap54175-rs29021817)位于IL1RAPL2基因内,7号染色体的显著SNP周围存在与炎症反应相关的基因(ILF3)。这两个基因都与白介素有关,而白介素4、5、6、12、13、17、22、23等都参与了不同的炎症反应,并发挥了重要的作用。ILF3是白介素家族中的一个跟炎症反应相关的因子,其功能与抑制翻译蛋白有关。本研究还通过线性混合模型对LASCS和SCS-SD进行全基因组关联分析发现了与Case-control方法在X染色体上同时定位到的SNP(BTA-28466-no-rs)。通过比较两种方法(线性混合模型方法和Case-control方法),对同一性状用两种方法可以定位的相同的位点,但不同性状的结果就各不相同。【结论】本研究找到了与乳房炎症反应相关的基因,为奶牛乳房炎易感性及抗性的分子遗传基础研究提供了数据支持。