Hands off but Strings Attached: The Contradictions of Policy-induced Demand-driven Agricultural Extension

Although many governments have privatized their agricultural extension services, there is widespread agreement that the public sector still needs to play a role in the “agricultural knowledge market” in order to prevent market failure and other undesirable phenomena. However, appropriate mechanisms for intervention in the agricultural knowledge market are still in their infancy. This article discusses the case of the Nutrient Management Support Service (NMSS), a government-funded support service in The Netherlands designed to optimize the fit between the demand and supply of “agricultural knowledge products” that reduce nutrient emissions into the environment. The activities of the support service were four-fold: (1) distributing vouchers to farmers, (2) establishing mechanisms for quality control, (3) facilitating the articulation of end-users’ needs, and (4) improving market transparency. We analyze the extent to which the NMSS has succeeded in supporting a demand-driven knowledge market for nutrient management issues. We question some of the conceptual and practical assumptions underlying this style of intervention. In addition, we argue that the notion of demand requires considerable refinement before it can be useful for guiding state involvement in demand-driven extension. Laurens Klerkx holds a MSc in Tropical Land Use from Wageningen University. He is currently working on his PhD. His research focuses on how needs are articulated in demand-driven agricultural innovation processes and how newly emerging institutions such as knowledge brokers, knowledge networks, and innovation facilitators support this demand-driven agricultural innovation. Karin de Grip studied Tropical Agriculture (BSc) and, after working for 3 years in Indonesia in development co-operation, joined the MSc program in Management of Agri-ecological Knowledge and Social Change at Wageningen University. Her specific foci and interests include interactive knowledge development processes, learning processes, knowledge exchange and innovation networks, enforcement of knowledge markets, and demand-driven extension. Cees Leeuwis is professor of Communication and Innovation Studies at Wageningen University. He holds a MSc in Rural Sociology and a PhD in Communication and Innovation Studies. His research focuses on (a) the role of new interactive and cross-disciplinary approaches in bringing about coherent innovations, (b) the analysis of social learning and conflict management in networks, and (c) the way in which the privatization of research and extension institutions affects public sphere innovation processes.     

Lessons for farmer-oriented research: Experiences from a West African soil fertility management project

Donors, scientists and farmers all benefit when research and development projects have high impact. However, potential benefits are sometimes not realized. Our objective in this study is to determine why resource-poor farmers in Togo (declined to) adopt recommended practices that were promoted through a multi-organizational project on soil fertility management. We examine the processes and outcomes related to the adoption process. The project was undertaken in three villages in the Central Region of Togo in West Africa. The development and research processes that took place during the implementation of the project were critically analyzed using a conceptual framework that may be useful for improving the impact of future participatory projects. At the macro level, opportunities for innovation were not deliberately explored with participating farmers and other village members; consequently “pre-analytical choices” made during the planning phase resulted in practices that resource-poor farmers were, for a variety of reasons, unable or unwilling to adopt. From the outset, donors and scientists focused on soil fertility management, but failed to take into account the wider economic context within which soil fertility management took place. This was a major obstacle to the subsequent adoption of recommended management strategies. Scientists and donor partners measured the success of the Project in terms of crop productivity, but farmers’ choices were influenced by a complex mix of socio-economic, political and technical factors. We also illustrate the importance of selecting appropriate categories of farmers for a particular experiment. We conclude that for participatory research and development projects to be successful, it is not enough to develop technologies that “work” in a technical sense. In order to be scaled up and widely implemented, such technologies must also meet a variety of needs of resource-poor farmers and be acceptable from a socio-cultural point of view. Suzanne Nederlof holds a PhD in Communication and Innovation Studies from Wageningen University in the Netherlands. After finishing her MSc. degree in Development Sociology at the same university she worked at a research project in Burkina Faso and at the International Center for Soil Fertility and Agricultural Development (IFDC) in Togo. Subsequently, she was based at the FAO regional office for Africa in Ghana, assigned to the Convergence of Sciences Program. She conducted the fieldwork for this article during that period. She completed her PhD research on agricultural research with a scholarship from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research. She is currently employed as an advisor in rural innovation at the Royal Tropical Institute (KIT) in Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Constant Dangbégnon worked for several years (1990–1998) on Inter-University Cooperation (Benin, the Netherlands and Israel) in the area of indigenous knowledge and the soft side of natural resource management. This work constituted the basis of his PhD from Wageningen University in The Netherlands. He joined IFDC – Africa Division in Lomé (Togo) in June 1999 as a socio-economic extension specialist in the Input Accessibility Program (IAP).     

Poultry Farmers’ Preference and use of Commercial and Self-compounded Feeds in Oyo Area of Oyo State, Nigeria

This study investigated poultry farmers’ perceptions, preferences, and use of commercially compounded and self-compounded feeds in the Oyo Area of Oyo State, Nigeria. Data were collected from 120 poultry farmers through a structured interview schedule. The study concluded that poultry farmers prefer and use self-compounded feeds (SCF) instead of commercially compounded feeds (CCF) because (a) self-compounded feeds are of better quality than commercially compounded feeds, (b) there are no quality control measures in the poultry feed industry in the Oyo Area, (c) commercially compounded feeds cost more than self-compounded feeds, and (d) farmers choose feed based on the perceived quality of the feed, their technical ability to produce feed by themselves, the cost of CCF, the storability of feed, and the cost and availability of transportation. Based on these findings, it is recommended that interested public and private agencies should organize annual extension workshops and training for poultry farmers in the study area on (a) feed formulation; (b) feed ingredient mixing and compounding; (c) selection of ingredients, mixtures, and additives; and (d) the establishment, operation, and maintenance of feed mills. Farmers should be encouraged to form feed mill cooperative societies. The performance of the Standards Organization of Nigeria (SON) should be monitored and evaluated to ensure its effective oversight of quality standards for agricultural products and inputs such as feeds and feed ingredients. S. O. Apantaku, PhD (Southern Illinois), is an Associate Professor and Head of the Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria. His research interest is in agricultural extension education processes and development, farmers’ decision-making processes, and community and rural development. He is involved in extension work and teaches group dynamics in extension, rural community development and social change, agricultural extension teaching methods and learning processes, public relations in extension, and advanced rural sociology. E. O. A. Oluwalana is a PhD candidate and an Extension Research Fellow with the Agricultural Media Resources and Extension Center, University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria. Her research interest is in farmers’ micro-credit financing, agro-processing and utilization, and women-in-agriculture. She teaches agribusiness management, cooperatives and agricultural finance and is involved in extension service in the area of women-in-development, agro-processing, and health and environmental issues. O. A. Adepegba is a graduate of the Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria. She is presently a postgraduate candidate at the University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. She is an Agricultural Extension Officer I with the Oyo West Local Government Council, Oyo State. She is interested in socio-economic issues in poultry production and farmers’ decision-making processes.     

Soil fertility management in the mid-hills of Nepal: Practices and perceptions

Sustaining soil fertility is essential to the prosperity of many households in the mid-hills of Nepal, but there are concerns that the breakdown of the traditional linkages between forest, livestock, and cropping systems is adversely affecting fertility. This study used triangulated data from surveys of households, discussion groups, and key informants in 16 wards in eastern and western Nepal to determine the existing practices for soil fertility management, the extent of such practices, and the perception of the direction of changes in soil fertility. The two principal practices for maintaining soil fertility were the application of farmyard manure (FYM) and of chemical fertilizer (mainly urea and diammonium phosphate). Green manuring, in-situ manuring, slicing terrace risers, and burning plant residues are rarely practiced. FYM usage was variable with more generally applied to khet land (average 6053 kg fresh weight manure ha^–1) than to bari land (average 4185 kg fresh weight manure ha^–1) with manure from goats and poultry preferred above that from cows and buffaloes. Almost all households (98%) apply urea to khet land and 87% to bari land, with 45% applying diammonium phosphate to both types of land. Application rates and timings of applications varied considerably both within and between wards suggesting poor knowledge transfer between the research and farming communities. The benefits of chemical fertilizers in terms of ease of application and transportation in comparison with FYM, were perceived to outweigh the widely reported detrimental hardening of soil associated with their continued usage. Among key informants, FYM applied in conjunction with chemical fertilizer was the most popular amendment, with FYM alone preferred more than chemical fertilizer alone – probably because of the latters long-term detrimental effects. Key informant and householder surveys differed in their perception of fertility changes in the last decade probably because of differences in age and site-specific knowledge. All key informants felt that fertility had declined but among households, only about 40% perceived a decline with the remainder about evenly divided between no change and an increase. Householders with small landholdings (< 0.5 ha) were more likely to perceive increasing soil fertility while those with larger landholdings (> 2 ha) were more likely to perceive declining fertility. Perceived changes in soil fertility were not related to food self-sufficiency. The reasons for the slow spread of new technologies within wards and the poor understanding of optimal use of chemical fertilizers in conjunction with improved quality FYM may repay further investigation in terms of sustaining soil fertility in this region.Colin Pilbeam graduated from the University of Oxford with an MA in Agriculture and Forest Sciences. He spent 11 years as a Post-Doctoral Research Fellow in the Department of Soil Science, The University of Reading researching nitrogen and water dynamics in cropping systems in Kenya, Syria, and Nepal. He is now the manager of research programs at Cranfield School of Management.Sudarshan Bhakta Mathema is a senior agricultural economist based in Kathmandu, Nepal. After serving the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, in Nepal for 23 years, he joined the UNs Food and Agriculture Organization as the Farming Systems Economist for 2years. Currently, Dr. Mathema is the Manager of the Hill Agriculture Research Project with the Department for International Development, UK. Dr Mathema has major expertise in the fields of farming systems research and development, participatory research and development, competitive grant systems, sustainable rural livelihoods, impact assessment, project management and implementation, agricultural extension methods, and various types of socio-economic research. He has worked as a consultant for various national and international institutes. He has published papers and reports in the field of agriculture, particularly focusing on Nepal.Peter Gregory has been the Professor of Soil Science at the University of Reading since 1994. His research focuses on the interactions between plant roots and soils and on the development of sustainable systems of crop production. He has worked in Australia, Syria, Nepal, India, and West Africa and is the chair of Global Environmental Change and Food Systems – an international research project on food security.Padma Bahadur Shakya is an Agricultural Economist who has worked for the Department of Agriculture under the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives in Nepal for more than 20 years. He has also been a short-term consultant for various national and international organizations such as FAO, the UNs World Food Programme, Swiss Development Corporation, Asian Development Bank, JICA, HARP, and several local NGOs. Currently, he is affiliated with the Agriculture Perspective Plan Support Programme, implemented by the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.     

Evolution of agricultural extension and information dissemination in Peru: An historical perspective focusing on potato-related pest control

Multiplicity and continual change characterize the Peruvian agricultural knowledge and information system (AKIS), reflecting changes in the agricultural sector as a whole. The evolution of these changes can be traced back to the pre-Columbian era when a relatively stable and well-organized system based on indigenous knowledge prevailed. During colonial (1532–1821) and early Republican times (beginning 1821) several changes affecting the agricultural sector contributed to a weakening of indigenous knowledge systems. During the 20th century extension services provided by the government and a variety of private organizations began to play an important role in the dissemination of information, albeit in an erratic way. Since the 1970s the system increased in complexity with the emergence of non-governmental institutions. Today government participation is limited and there is a more important participation by a number of NGOs and private organizations. This diversity of actors using different approaches has generated disarray in the information system owing to the lack of coherent policies to guide the interaction among actors. This paper uses the case of potato pest control-related information to illustrate changes in local knowledge systems. It differentiates pest control based on indigenous knowledge, chemical control, and integrated pest management (IPM) and explains how changes in the system have influenced the use of these three types of information in AKIS. Currently, the coexistence of different types of potato pest control information promoted and used by diverse and usually unconnected sets of organizations and individuals presents a challenge and requires inter-institutional action guided by clear policies to promote sustainable agriculture. Oscar Ortiz is an agronomist who specializes in agricultural extension, knowledge systems, and participatory research. He holds an MSc degree in crop production and agricultural extension from the La Molina National Agrarian University of Peru and a PhD from the Agricultural Extension and Rural Development Department at the University of Reading, UK. He has worked for the National Agricultural Research Institute and Nestle Company in Peru and is currently Division Leader for Integrated Crop Management at the International Potato Center (CIP) in Lima. Since 2001 he has been a visiting lecturer at the Graduate School of the La Molina National Agrarian University of Peru. He is a member of the Latin American Potato Association and the International Society for Horticultural Science.     

A case study of cash cropping in Nepal: Poverty alleviation or inequity?

Agricultural commercialization as a mechanism to alleviate rural poverty raises concerns about small land-holders, non-adopters, and inequity in the distribution of benefits within transforming economies. Farm gross margins were calculated to assess the economic status and impact of cash cropping on the economic well-being of agrarian households in the Mid-hills of Nepal. On an individual crop basis, tomatoes and potatoes were the most profitable. On a per farm basis, 50 of the households with positive farm gross margins grew at least one vegetable crop, while only 25 of households with negative farm gross margins included vegetable crops in their rotation. Farmers have been hesitant to produce primarily for the market given the rudimentary infrastructure and high variability in prices. Farmers reported selling more crops, but when corrected for inflation, gross revenues declined over time. The costs and benefits of developing markets have been unevenly distributed with small holders unable to capitalize on market opportunities, and wealthier farmers engaging in input intensive cash cropping. Farms growing vegetables had an average gross margin of US$137 per year compared to US$12 per year for farms growing only staple crops. However, the area under production is small, and while vegetable production is likely to continue increasing, sensitivity analysis and scenarios suggest high variability and limited short-term impact on poverty alleviation.Sandra Brown is a Senior Research Associate jointly appointed to the Institute for Resources and Environment, University of British Columbia in Vancouver, Canada and the Communities and Watersheds Program at the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture in Cali, Colombia. Her research interests are in gender and equity issues in natural resource management, and linking biophysical and socio-economic research approaches. Sandra works extensively in watershed management both within Canada and internationally. She has worked extensively in the Himalayan and Andean Mountains including current projects in Nepal, China, Bhutan, Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia. Sandra is co-author of numerous multimedia CD-ROMs including: Gender and Resources in the Middle Mountains of Nepal, Integrated Watershed Management, and Water in International Development. She has developed and delivered numerous educational programs including courses on gender and natural resources, watershed management, and innovative technologies in teaching and research. George Kennedy is an Associate Professor in Food and Resource Economics and the Director of International Programs in the Faculty of Agricultural Sciences at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver Canada. His research interests are in agricultural development and internationalizing higher education. Within this capacity, George is the UBC coordinator for the Southeast Asian University Consortium for Graduate Education in Agriculture. In 2002, he won the Association of Universities and Colleges in Canada Award for Excellence in Internationalization for the Global Resource Systems Program in the category Broadening the Student Experience.     

Farmer-Community Connections and the Future of Ecological Agriculture in California

While questions about the environmental sustainability of contemporary farming practices and the socioeconomic viability of rural communities are attracting increasing attention throughout the US, these two issues are rarely considered together. This paper explores the current and potential connections between these two aspects of sustainability, using data on community members’ and farmers’ views of agricultural issues in California’s Central Valley. These views were collected from a series of individual and group interviews with biologically oriented and conventional farmers as well as community stakeholders. Local marketing, farmland preservation, and perceptions of sustainable agriculture comprised the primary topics of discussion. The mixed results indicate that, while many farmers and community members have a strong interest in these topics, sustainable community development and the use of sustainable farming practices are seldom explicitly linked. On the other hand, many separate efforts around the Valley to increase local marketing and agritourism, improve public education about agriculture, and organize grassroots farmland preservation initiatives were documented. We conclude that linking these efforts more explicitly to sustainable agriculture and promoting more engagement between ecologically oriented farmers and their communities could engender more economic and political support for these farmers, helping them and their communities to achieve greater sustainability in the long run. Sonja Brodt is a former program evaluation specialist with the University of California Integrated Pest Management Program. Her current research focuses on extension and adoption of integrated pest management strategies by California growers and the impacts of pesticide safety training programs on farmworkers. Gail Feenstra is a food systems analyst at the University of California Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Program (SAREP). She coordinates SAREP’s Community Development and Public Policy grants program and conducts outreach and education to academic and community-based groups to build their capacity and leadership skills for developing sustainable community food systems. Robin Kozloff is a social science researcher and consultant in agricultural and land use policy. Karen Klonsky is an extension specialist at the University of California at Davis in the Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics. Her research focuses on the economic viability of organic and sustainable farming systems as well as the evolution of the organic market. Laura Tourte is county director and farm advisor at the University of California Cooperative Extension in Santa Cruz County. Her research and extension activities currently focus on farm management and marketing for small-scale growers.     

Participatory Planting and Management of Indigenous Trees: Lessons from Chivi District, Zimbabwe

This paper reports on action research that evaluated local perceptions and knowledge of indigenous tree planting and management in the Romwe catchment, Chivi District, southern Zimbabwe. The species tested were the overexploited Afzelia quanzensis, important for timber and carvings of sculptures and utensils; Sclerocarya birrea, the marula tree used for wood, bark, and fruit; and Brachystegia glaucescens, the dominant miombo tree species, used for firewood, fiber, and fodder. Participants volunteered to plant and manage the test seeds, while a research team monitored their activities and results for 26 months. For Afzelia quanzensis, the germination rate was 81%, and 69% of the seedlings were still alive after one year. In the case of Sclerocarya birrea, the germination rate was 69%, and the one-year survival rate was 50%. For Brachystegia glaucescens, the germination rate was only 30%, and the survival rate was 31%. The main reasons for planting were to provide shade, to serve as a windbreak, and to conserve and gain individual control over dwindling natural resources, particularly Afzelia quanzensis. Women were generally more active and innovative than men. For instance, they searched for their own seeds or seedlings in the bush when there weren’t sufficient plants. Some participants tried out various indigenous methods of pest and disease control, water conservation, and moisture retention. Group feedback sessions and informal interactions provided the opportunity to share experiences. The participants learned that indigenous trees can be purposefully planted and were not simply a gift from God. Despite the droughts and political instability of recent years, a growing number of people became involved in tree planting during 2002–2003. As a result, there is now greater awareness among the local population of dwindling resources and their future potential. Karin Gerhardt, PhD, is a researcher at Department of Plant Ecology at Uppsala University. She has worked with tropical dry forest regeneration and forest utilization, as well as with the promotion of tropical dry forest research and development programs at the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency. Nontokozo Nemarundwe, PhD, is a research associate with the Institute of Environmental Studies at the University of Zimbabwe and the Center for International Forestry Research. She is a sociologist with research and training experience in community based natural resource management and gender issues in Southern Africa.     

Beef with environmental and quality attributes: Preferences of environmental group and general population consumers in Saskatchewan, Canada

We attempt to quantify and qualify the preferences of consumers for beef with a number of environmental and food quality attributes. Our goal is to evaluate the viability of a proposed food co-operative based in the Wood River watershed of southern Saskatchewan, Canada. The food co-operative was designed to provide a price premium to producers who adopted alternative management practices. In addition, the study evaluated the acceptance of a proposed food co-operative by consumer that had environmental interests as compared to the general population. Conjoint analysis was used to determine the trade-off and relative value of beef with the following production and purchasing characteristics: (a) use of hormones, antibiotics and vaccination in production; (b) method of obtaining the beef including monthly or yearly purchase contracts or a local market; (c) price relative to beef purchased from the local grocery store; and (d) impact on the river ecosystem. Consumers from environmental groups had stronger environmental and food quality preferences than individuals from the general population. However, consumers from both groups expressed a willingness to pay higher prices for food that had these attributes. It was uncertain whether the magnitude of the premium, in combination with a desire not to enter a long-term purchasing commitment, would be large enough to encourage farmers to adopt the alternative management. Ken W. Belcher is an Associate Professor in the Department of Agricultural Economics at the University of Saskatchewan. His research has focused on ecological economics and environmental policy with a particular interest in environmental conservation in agricultural landscapes. Andrea E. Germann was a Research Assistant with the Centre for Studies in Agriculture, Law and the Environment at the University of Saskatchewan. Josef K. Schmutz is a Research Fellow with the Centre for Studies in Agriculture, Law and the Environment. Joe has expanded his research interest on prairie raptors by fostering strategic design for alternative, local economies that include the conservation of birds and their ecosystems.     

Agrarianism and the American philosophical tradition

Paul Thompson is Associate Professor of Philosophy and Agricultural Economics at Texas A&M University. His textbookEthics, Public Policy and Agriculture, written with Eileen Olsen VanRavenswaay and Robert Matthews, will be published by Macmillan in 1991. He is currently co-editing a book with Bill Stout on agricultural research policy entitledBeyond the Large Farm. He is guest editor of this issue.