Big or Small Cities? On city size and economic growth

Policy makers and academics frequently emphasize a positive link between city size and economic growth. The empirical literature on the relationship, however, is scarce and uses rough indicators for the size of a country's cities, while ignoring factors that are increasingly considered to shape this relationship. In this paper, we employ a panel of 113 countries between 1980 and 2010 to explore whether 1) there are certain city sizes that are growth enhancing and 2) how additional factors highlighted in the literature impact the city size/growth relationship. The results suggest a nonlinear relationship which is dependent on the country's size. In contrast to the prevailing view that large cities are growth‐inducing, for a majority of countries relatively small cities of up to 3 million inhabitants are more conducive to economic growth. A large share of the urban population in cities of more than 10 million inhabitants is only growth promoting in countries with an urban population of 28.5 million and more. In addition, the relationship is highly context‐dependent: a high share of industries that benefit from agglomeration economies, a well‐developed urban infrastructure, and an adequate level of governance effectiveness allow countries to take advantage of agglomeration benefits from larger cities.     

The patterns and driving forces of uneven regional growth in ASEAN countries: A tale of two Thailands' path toward regional coordinated development

Uneven development has long been a critical issue in geography and urban studies, leading to economically inefficient urbanization, environmentally unbalanced regions, and socially unequal livelihoods. As one result, primate cities and urban primacy form within a hierarchical urban system, to which urban and regional planning must positively respond. It is worth noting that Thailand has experienced a number of important urbanization issues related to developing countries, such as semicolonialism and internal colonialism. This study aims to investigate regional uneven development based on primacy theory and the rank‐size rule, which are common in most Asian and developing countries. We examined the urbanization processes in Thailand, from 2000 to 2015, by looking at factors of population, GDP, land use, transportation networks, and nighttime light, which provide very recent regional development patterns. The second set of analyses explained the degree of primacy among different provinces and their ranking hierarchies. By presenting the persistent disparities of contemporary urbanization in Thailand and exploring its driving forces, this study offers insights into planning and policy and underscores the importance of regional coordinated development for achieving sustainable urbanization in Southeast Asian countries.     

The Planning Response to Urban Service Sector Growth: an International Comparison

The restructuring of urban economies from manufacturing to service industries has been a major feature of the last twenty-five years. Large cities with a population of at least one million have been at the forefront of this change with the primate cities of the newly industrialized countries increasingly affected. The growth characteristics, planning experiences, and policy implications of the expansion of service industries in large and medium-size metropolitan areas around the world are examined. This has illuminated issues connected with the interurban competition for services. The service sector has shaped new urban planning and public policy agendas and the way in which metropolitan areas in this study have started to reshape their policies provides a good lead for others to follow. It is likely that new pressures will strengthen the need to look beyond their established urban planning policies to broader, integrated urban management policies.     

Sustainable urbanization in Southeast Asia and beyond: Challenges of population growth,land use change,and environmental health

As economic growth centres, the Southeast Asian cities feature high population pressure, unsustainable land use, environmental degradation, and large ecological footprints. It is difficult to manage environmental health and basic services for urban dwellers, and ensure optimum flow of ecosystem services in the context of rapid, unplanned, and haphazard urbanization. These challenges are particularly multifaceted in the developing countries of Southeast Asian region. This study, based on secondary sources, adopted multidisciplinary lenses, such as geographical information systems, socio‐economic perspective, and sustainability science to examine the population situation, land use change pattern, and drivers of environmental degradation in the Southeast Asian cities as well as the Dhaka megacity, and brought forth a fresh perspective to look into contemporary urban ecosystems, population dynamics, environmental health, and sustainability. It also focused on identifying the commonalities among the cities under study to create a common understanding towards promoting collaborative urban development. This study shows that the urbanization process in the Southeast Asia region is taking place mostly in an unplanned and haphazard manner. With little concern for nature, life‐supporting ecological systems, and the environment, urban spatial growth continues unabated. The data surveyed and discussed in this paper shows that the current style of urbanization in Southeast Asia can best be called unsustainable. The findings also suggest that the general wellbeing and welfare of the current and future generations in Southeast Asian cities as well as in Dhaka is at risk. The paper recommends concerted efforts towards making the urbanization process sustainable, including better urban planning, policymaking, and international and regional cooperation.     

发展云南特色现代农业推进社会主义新农村建设

云南是一个城乡二元经济结构十分突出的省份,是一个城乡之间、地区之间发展不平衡的省份,是一个贫困面大、贫困程度深的省份,是一个农业生产水平低、科技含量低、比较效益低的省份,是受市场、资金、技术、人才多种制约的省份。结合云南农业农村发展存在的问题和困难,提出利用云南资源优势,发展云南特色现代农业加快社会主义新农村建设。重点分析研究了加快云南特色现代农业的发展重点,以及发展云南特色现代农业推进社会主义新农村建设的对策措施。     

The throughgoing urbanisation of East and Southeast Asia

The image of East and Southeast Asia is of a predominantly rural region, with the exception of Japan. This image no longer reflects reality. Although in 2000 the proportion of the population living in areas officially defined as urban will still be below 40 percent, this understates the degree to which populations throughout the region have, in terms of employment, ease of transport and communications, been brought into a close relationship with urban areas. Not only this, but the region already has eight of the world’s 21 megacities — cities with populations exceeding eight million. Urbanised corridors are emerging in parts of the region, in some cases cutting across national boundaries. Some implications for the future are discussed: the growth of a truly urban proletariat, the influence of megacities on political change, the ending of rural isolation, and regional development and income inequality issues.     

Neoliberalism and the Urban Economy in Ghana: Urban Employment,Inequality, and Poverty

Ghana is one of a few African countries where more people now reside in cities than in the countryside. What is not as well‐known are the changes that have taken place in the economic base of Ghanaian cities. This paper tells that story. It focuses particularly on jobs, incomes, inequality, and poverty, and their characteristics in an era when neoliberal policies have been implemented. It draws on census reports, national surveys, and published reports in order to overcome the dearth of information about the urban and national economies. The paper shows that, on the one hand, the increasing prominence of the private sector in the urban economy has impacted positively on capital formation and job creation. On the other hand, urban and national inequality levels have dramatically increased. Whether these changes are favourable to the majority of urban citizens is contestable.     

农地城市流转驱动力与农地保护研究

无论在发达国家，还是在发展中国家，农地城市流转现象是其实现工业化和城市化所必须付出的一种代价，已经成为经济发展和城市化、工业化进程中的一个普遍现象。人多地少的国情决定我国农地保护的重要性，但是对处于城市化的加速发展阶段的中国，农地流转必将会持续一段时间，可见，我国农地保护面临的形势不容乐观。本文在他人研究的基础上，认为农地是在地方政府、村经济集体、农民、企业以及居民几大动力主体的相互作用下，在制度缺陷、经济增长、区位状况、城市化以及价值观念驱动力的共同作用下，不断地向城市转移的。最后，提出了保护农地，必须树立科学发展观等对策。     

我国35个大中城市建设用地结构与空气质量的典型相关分析

[目的]研究选取中国35个大中城市作为样本城市，评价了样本城市2016年空气质量和城市建设用地结构特征，[方法]利用典型相关分析方法分析城市建设用地结构与空气质量之间的关系，为合理安排城市用地结构、改善空气质量、提高城市人居环境质量提供科学依据。[结果](1)研究期间样本城市空气质量地域差异明显，空气污染较重的城市主要集中在华北地区、西北地区，东南沿海城市空气质量较好，京津冀地区空气污染问题较为严重，空气质量指数（AQI）、PM2.5、PM10、SO2、NO2年均浓度呈现出：北方城市>南方城市、内陆城市>沿海城市。(2)研究期间样本城市建设用地结构存在一定差异，居住用地和工矿仓储用地占城市建设用地总面积的比例在49%~58%之间。北方、南方城市建设用地结构差异主要体现在绿地与广场用地比例，沿海、内陆城市建设用地结构差异主要体现在公共管理与公共服务用地、工矿仓储用地和绿地与广场用地的比例。城市建设用地结构信息熵平均值呈现出北方城市>南方城市、内陆城市>沿海城市的特征。(3)典型相关分析结果表明，样本城市建设用地结构对空气质量有一定影响。不同的区域空气污染物不同，影响空气污染物浓度的建设用地结构因子也不同。从整体上，居住用地与商业服务业设施用地与SO2呈负相关，工矿仓储用地与NO2呈正相关；从区域上，居住用地、道路与交通设施用地与PM2.5呈正相关，工矿仓储用地与NO2呈正相关，居住用地、道路与交通设施用地与SO2呈负相关。[结论]样本城市建设用地结构对空气质量有一定影响。     

基于适度人口容量的新型城镇化发展分析——以宁夏5个地级市为例

通过构建经济承载力、土地承载力、可供水资源承载力、建设用地承载力与生态环境承载力人口容量模型综合测度研究区5市理论城镇化发展水平,从而与实际城镇化发展水平进行对比分析。结果表明：（1）银川市与石嘴山市实际城镇化发展水平高于理论城镇化发展水平,且城市人口潜力指数大,具有吸纳外来人口的能力;（2）吴忠市、中卫市和固原市实际城镇化水平低于理论城镇化水平,城镇化发展水平偏低,且人口潜力指数较小,不具备吸纳外来人口的能力。以此为依据,为不同人口密度等级区新型城镇化发展提出相应的对策与建议：（1）对于人口极密集区与密集区,一方面应加强中心城市的辐射带动能力,另一方面加强政府引导作用,推动人口市民化进程与城市空间协调发展;（2）对于人口中等区,一方面,加强中心城市的拉力作用,另一方面,创造农村推力作用,着力解决城镇化过程中流动人口的“后顾之忧”;（3）对于人口稀少与极稀区,一方面应鼓励就地城镇化,另一方面要打破城乡二元结构,促进本区域城镇化发展水平。     

暂时贫困人口问题研究

目前,在中国存在数量较多收入徘徊在贫困线上、且缺乏有效的脱贫手段的群体,在中国区域、城乡之间,暂时贫困率存在显著差异。通过对于中国健康与营养调查(CHNS)数据的研究与分析,对上述假设进行了检验。结果表明：（1）在CHNS的有效样本中,25.87%的家庭出现了暂时贫困状况,远大于样本中出现的贫困率与长期贫困率;（2）就区域、城乡比较而言,经济落后地区与农村地区的暂时贫困率要高于发达地区与城市地区。依据该研究结果提出政策建议：加大“能力扶贫”的力度,特别是对于贫困人群初、中级应用技术、技能的免费培训工作;继续推进各项一体化政策,重点关注欠发达地区、农村地区的经济发展。     

Analyzing the distribution of researchers in China: An approach using multiscale geographically weighted regression

We employ a Multiscale Geographically Weighted Regression (MGWR) model to examine the spatial variation of researchers in China in 2015 and its determinants. It is found that the distribution of researchers is driven by the economy in urban centers, public services, natural areas of recreation, urban consumption, and work‐related facilities. Results from the MGWR model conclusively identify significant spatial non‐stationarity in the determinants measuring scientific researchers' distribution. Other factors such as per capita GDP, the number of hospital beds per 10,000 inhabitants, and public financial expenditures influence the distribution of researchers more in the Western cities, and their effect decreases steadily from West to East. Air pollutants affect researchers negatively in the eastern part of the country, while the percentage of available green land is a strong driver in the central and western parts. The factor measuring the effect of the number of universities is seen to affect researchers more strongly in the northwestern and northeastern cities. Other findings further suggest that the economy and public services in cities have a consistent effect on the distribution of researchers across the country whereas, natural areas of recreation, work‐related facilities, and urban consumption have a significantly varying effect across cities.     

The geographically variegated connections of the Jakarta metropolitan area as produced by manufacturing firms

Connectivity in urban networks is often deemed to be an important feature of economically vibrant cities. Under conditions of contemporary globalization, the importance and geographies of these connections are increasingly variegated. Accordingly, various attempts have been made to analyse the external relations of cities and metropolitan regions, often through the lens of multilocational firms. Our purpose in this paper is to address the to‐date limited empirical knowledge about whether firms originating from different regions (i.e., firms with different headquarter [HQ] locations) create different patterns of inter‐urban relations. Drawing on the interlocking network model and using the Jakarta metropolitan area (JMA) as a case study, this paper explores how manufacturing firms with HQs either inside (further differentiating between the JMA and other cities) or outside (further differentiating between East Asian and non‐East Asian countries) Indonesia produce different patterns of external relations. Our findings indicate that each category of firms generates unique configurations of interurban relations for the JMA at the global and national scales. We argue that these variegated networks patterns not only reflect different locational strategies of firms, but also Indonesia's evolving policy orientations which have complex relations with evolving patterns of economic globalization.     

City and Inhabitants

Based on the relationship between cities and inhabitants as the main point, the characters, complexity and openness of the urban system are discussed in this paper. Then, the nature of the city is revealed.     

An economic analysis of urban infrastructure development project in the northern Indian city of Bharatpur

Rajasthan Urban Sector Development Program involved investment in water supply, sewerage, sanitation, and drainage, solid waste management (SWM), and etc. in major cities in the state of Rajasthan in India. This program was an initiative of the Government of Rajasthan and the Government of India carried out with a loan arrangement from Asian Development Bank. The phase II of the program was implemented in 15 cities of Rajasthan including Bharatpur with total investment of 1868.40 million Indian Rupees. The objective of this paper is to evaluate the economic viability of the infrastructure investments in Bharatpur in water supply, sewerage, sanitation, and drainage, SWM, and measure the impact on urban poor. Water supply, sewerage, sanitation, and drainage, and SWM subprojects are economically viable with internal rate of return (IRR) of 85.72%, 22.87%, and 39.34%, respectively. The sensitivity analysis shows above 12% IRR for all the above‐mentioned subprojects. The distribution of project benefits to the urban poor in Bharatpur is significant with poverty impact ratio of 9%.     

Living Model Based on Changing Physical and Mental Characteristics and Needs of the Elders

The ageing of society has been considered as one of the three major social problems in the twentyfirst century. Since 2000, China has entered the ageing society formally, and become one of the earliest developing countries that witness the population ageing, and also the countries with the largest ageing population in the world. Problems for supporting the aged have become crucial social problems of China. This paper, on the basis of analyzing changing physical and mental characteristics and needs of the elders, proposed different living models such as living together, living alone, living close, and social nursing facilities.     

Long-distance commuting and population change in Georgia, 1960-80

The authors investigate counter-urbanization and population change in Georgia between 1960 and 1980 by examining commuting patterns. "The immediate objective is to construct the entire set of commuting fields of both large metropolitan areas to metropolitan and nonmetropolitan employment centers. We then proceed to the relationship between commuting from nonmetropolitan areas to all levels of Georgia's urban hierarchy and population change in these nonmetropolitan settings. By matching population growth and decline areas with explicit employment ties...the nature of the population changes is much better understood." Data from the 1960, 1970, and 1980 censuses for 581 Census County Divisions (CCDs) in Georgia are analyzed. It is concluded that "most nonmetropolitan growth taking place in Georgia is associated with intensification of metropolitan commuting fields along with growth of nonmetropolitan centers and their influence along the very periphery of metropolitan spheres of employment influence. However, a significant share of Georgia's nonmetropolitan population revitalization is explained by growth independent of direct metropolitan influence. It would appear then that nonmetropolitan growth centers are an important part of the basis for population decentralization in Georgia. Metropolitan spill-over alone cannot account for counterurbanization on this portion of the American economic landscape."     

Factors Driving the Population Growth and Decline of Portuguese Cities

Despite the worldwide trend of urbanisation, data reveal that some cities are growing whereas others are losing inhabitants. To assess such dynamics in Portuguese cities, demographic, employment, housing, and climate variables were analysed as possible drivers of population change for the period 1991–2011. Panel data models show that higher shares of employment in the secondary and tertiary sectors, higher maximum temperatures, and a higher proportion of middle‐aged vacant houses act as pull factors attracting inhabitants, whereas a higher unemployment rate is a push factor for cities.     

关于发展都市农业的思考

都市农业是依托大城市发展起来的,反映了工业化和城市化发展后人类对新时代农业的一种探索,它是现代都市经济社会发展的必然趋势。在中国,都市农业是一种新形态,它对中国农业的发展与新农村建设具有重要战略意义。改革开放以来,由于城市经济社会高速发展,乡镇企业迅速崛起,大批小城市、小城镇、县城规模不断扩大,许多已经转为城市,都市型农业在中国的一些大城市中应运而生。在20多年的发展过程中,都市农业取得了显著的成就,但也存在着一些问题。因此,笔者从都市农业产生的背景出发,对都市农业的基本内涵和意义进行了描述,同时对中国都市农业的发展现状进行了综述,讨论了目前中国都市农业发展存在的问题,进而对都市农业的发展提出了建议。