The Importance of Nitrogen Oxides for the Exceedance of Critical Thresholds in the Nordic Countries

Impacts of air pollutants and especially acidification in ecosystems have been of serious concern in the Nordic countries since the 1970s. The current approach to assess several pollutants (sulfur and nitrogen oxides, ammonia, volatile organic compounds) and their effects (acidification, eutrophication and ground-level ozone) simultaneously is extremely complex. This study explored the relative role of nitrogen oxides in environmental impacts in the Nordic countries. The share of NO_x in the exceedances of critical loads, the long-term ecosystem protection targets, was found to be roughly 25% in acidification and 50% in eutrophication. The contribution of NO_x emissions to ground-level ozone formation was considered important, as NO_x is the limiting precursor in ozone formation in the Nordic countries. The comparison of observed and modeled accumulated ozone concentrations (AOT40) for the early 1990s shows noticeable differences in the Nordic area, partly due to the sensitivity of the AOT40 indicator to the 40 ppb threshold value.     

Ozone measurements in Europe

Ozone measurements have been apart of EMEP since its third phase in 1984–1986 and since 1988 data have been collected systematically. By 1992 data for 76 sites were being collected by the Chemical Co-ordinating Centre in NILU. The mean ozone concentration increases from 20–25ppb in the western and northern fringes to 30–35 in central areas of Europe. There is also evidence from the last decade of an upward trend of up to 0.5ppb y^?1 at rural sites in the UK. The data have been analysed to estimate the spatial patterns in AOT 40 for ozone effects on crops and forests. The data show that the critical level for cereal crops of 5300 ppb.h above a threshold of 40 ppb is exceeded over almost all of continental Europe south of 65°N and over most of S.Britain. A similar exercise for the AOT 40 for the forest again shows exceedances of the critical load of 10⁴ ppb.h across all the mapped area of Continental Europe south of 65°N including S.Britian. As land use for forestry and ozone dose both increase with altitude, and these effects have not so far been incorporated in the AOT 40 assessment for forests, the degree of exceedence for forests may have been significantly under-estimated.     

Estimation of the uncertainty in crop loss predictions through statistical modelling of the AOT40 levels for ozone

Ozone critical levels in Europe are defined in terms of an accumulated exposure over a threshold of 40 ppb, AOT40. For agricultural crops, for example, the critical level is an AOT40 of 5300 ppb.h during daylight in May to July in the year with the highest cumulative exposure in the last five years. In a region of the size of the UK, however, the worst case year is not the same over the whole region and maps become difficult to interpret. Prediction of crop losses on the basis of a single year out of five also wastes potentially valuable information. An alternative approach estimates the distribution of aggregate exceedances over a threshold by means of a compound Poisson model for episodes of raised ozone concentration with linear modelling techniques used to allow direct incorporation of covariate information. The use of spatial and environmental covariates, along with temporal and spatially correlated random effects, is explored using data from the UK ozone monitoring network. The model produces results similar to those from other mapping methods. By combining this model with a crop loss relationship, crop losses of 5–15% for the UK are predicted but the errors range between 2% and 6% indicating that fine detail in crop loss mapping is unlikely to be very accurate.     

Exceedance of EC Ozone Threshold Values in Europe in 1997

This paper summarises the annualinformation on ozone monitoring stations andexceedances of ozone threshold values during 1997transmitted by the Member States of the European Unionin the framework of Council Directive 92/72/EEC on airpollution by ozone. In August 1998 information for thecalendar year 1997 was received from all Member Statesand, on a voluntary basis, from 6 other Europeancountries (Switzerland, Czech Republic, Latvia,Norway, Poland and Slovakia).An evaluation of the exceedances and annual statisticsfor 1997 clearly shows that ozone is a severe,Pan-European problem. The threshold value set for theprotection of human health was exceeded substantiallyand in all reporting countries. The threshold value ofdaily average concentrations set for the protection ofvegetation was exceeded substantially (by up to afactor 3), widely (in all reporting countries) andfrequently (at several stations on more than 200days). The threshold value of hourly averageconcentrations set for the protection of vegetationwas exceeded largely and widely (reported by 10 EUMember States and in three out of the six otherEuropean countries) on a limited number of days.The threshold value for providing information to thepopulation was exceeded in 15 countries of which 12 EUMember States during a limited number of days.Exceedance of the threshold value for warning of thepopulation was reported from one station in Greece.     

Quantifying the fine scale (1km × 1km) exposure and effects of ozone. Part 1. Methodology and application for effects on forests

Surface ozone concentrations show very large local variability. This, in rural areas, is largely a consequence of the degree to which the surface air is decoupled from the bulk of the atmosphere by nocturnal and winter stability effects and of the aerodynamic roughness and topography of the countryside. Procedures have been developed to simulate these effects and have been used with O₃ data from a regional monitoring network to quantify exposure of vegetation to mean and peak O₃ concentrations. The index of exposure to potentially phytotoxic O₃ concentrations is the AOT40 (accumulated exposure over a threshold of 40 ppb) expressed in ppb.h. The accumulated exposure of crop and forest surfaces to ozone is shown to increase approximately linearly with altitude and along a gradient from 3000 ppb.h in north west Scotland to 7000 ppb.h in the south of England. The area of UK forest which exceeds the critical level for ozone effects (10⁴ ppb.h above 40 ppb) totals 2.0 × 10⁴ km² and represents 47% of afforested land. The areas affected include most of southern and central England and Wales and large plantation forests of Northumberland and the Scottish borders.     

Evaluation of Tobacco Cultivars as Bioindicators and Biomonitors of Ozone Phytotoxical Levels in Catalonia

A field study was conducted from May to October 1995 to assess ozone (O₃) phytotoxicity in Catalonia (NE Spain) by determining a percentage value of leaf area injured by ozone on three tobacco cultivars, Bel-W3, Bel-C and Bel-B as bioindicators. Colorimetric parameters were also determined in an effort to have an objective assessment of ozone injury. The study was conducted simultaneously on eight sites where ozone levels and several meteorological parameters were continuosly monitored. Two sets of plants were used at each site. The first one was composed of six plants of each cultivar which were changed every two weeks while the second one involved two plants of each cultivar which were kept in the plots throughout the whole experimental period. Open Top Chambers were also used to test the response of the three cultivars to ozone under controlled conditions. The ozone levels correlated well with ozone injury on the Bel-W3 cultivar but not as well on the other two cultivars. The ozone levels did not fully account for all the observed injury. The response of tobacco plants to ozone concentrations and therefore its biomonitoring capacity depended also on different environmental conditions linked to stomatal behaviour such as temperature, humidity, wind or altitude. These environmental conditions had some effects on the intensity of Ozone injury. Ozone concentrations accumulated over a threshold of 60 ppb (AOT60) when VPD was below 1 KPa. Correlated well with the ozone injury and best explained the intensity tobacco injury symptoms. For large plants growing throughout the whole period of study, Bel-C was the best indicator cultivar for AOT60 over the 3 days prior to the last ozone injury assessment. The colorimetric parameters were indicators of seasonal changes but they were not good ozone damage indicators. It is concluded that tobacco cultivars were good bioindicators but meteorological and other environmental factors need to be considered in there use as biomonitors.     

黄土高原丘陵沟壑区小流域浅沟和切沟侵蚀区的界定

验证了国外发生浅沟侵蚀和切沟侵蚀判定式在黄土丘陵区的适用性。通过GPS实测数据并结合GIS空间分析与统计回归方法,建立了适用于黄土高原丘陵区的发生浅沟侵蚀和切沟侵蚀判定式。研究结果表明,在黄土高原丘陵沟壑区,随着坡度的增大,发生浅沟侵蚀和切沟侵蚀的临界值a增大,高强度降雨致使判定式中汇水面积（A）的指数b值减小,从而降低了汇水面积的影响作用。在假定其它因素相同时,浅沟形成只需较小的汇水面积,而切沟形成则需要相对较大的汇水面积;当单位汇水面积相同时,发生切沟侵蚀比浅沟侵蚀需要更大的坡度。利用国外研究结果预测提取的浅沟侵蚀和切沟侵蚀发生区,明显夸大了研究区的沟蚀发生区;而用作者所建立的判定式提取的浅沟和切沟侵蚀分布区与野外实际相当吻合。即浅沟侵蚀主要发生在15°～35°的沟间地上,其分布面积占整个沟间地面积的60％,切沟侵蚀主要发生在大于35°的沟坡地上,其分布面积占整个沟坡面积的93％。     

近地层臭氧浓度增高对稻米品质的影响: FACE研究

利用稻田开放式空气中臭氧浓度增加(FACE,Free Air gas Concentration Enrichment)平台,以常规粳稻‘武粳15’和杂交粳稻‘陵风优18’为供试材料,设置大气背景臭氧浓度(Ambient)和高臭氧浓度(比Ambient增高21%,模拟21世纪中叶臭氧浓度)两个水平,研究臭氧胁迫对大田生长水稻成熟期稻米加工、外观、蒸煮/食味和营养品质的影响及其种间差异。结果表明,近地层臭氧浓度增高使稻米糙米率、精米率和整精米率均不同程度下降,其中精米率降幅达显著水平。与Ambient相比,臭氧胁迫使两品种稻米垩白米率、垩白大小和垩白度平均分别增加15.0%(P=0.10)、42.0%(P0.05)和60.5%(P0.05)。臭氧胁迫使稻米胶稠度平均降低7.1%(P0.05),但对两品种稻米直链淀粉和糊化温度均无显著影响。稻米RVA谱测定结果显示,臭氧胁迫对稻米最高黏度值、崩解值、冷胶黏度值、消减值和回复值均无显著影响。臭氧胁迫使两品种稻米蛋白质浓度呈增加趋势,但均未达显著水平。方差分析表明,多数情况下,两品种间稻米诸品质性状存在显著差异,但品种与臭氧的互作对所有测定指标均无显著影响,说明两品种稻米品质对臭氧胁迫的响应无明显差异。本试验在开放稻田条件下运行,适度臭氧胁迫使稻米垩白明显增加,胶稠度显著下降,但对其他米质指标影响较小,两品种趋势一致。     

工厂化循环水养殖中臭氧/紫外线反应系统的水处理性能

为增强臭氧在水产应用的安全性,满足工厂化循环水养殖对有机物去除和水体消毒的需要,该文开发O3/UV反应系统。通过试验方法研究该系统臭氧投加溶解区适宜的臭氧投加流量和处理量的关系、紫外辐射剂量配比等工艺参数,及对水质净化效果和水体消毒灭菌效果的影响等。试验结果表明:1)在满足所需水中溶解臭氧浓度的条件下,采用较低臭氧进气流量和较高进水流量有利于提高系统的臭氧溶解率和利用率。该系统在水流量为5 m3/h,臭氧投加量为(8.78±0.60)g/h时可得到水中臭氧溶解质量浓度为1.53 mg/L的臭氧水,臭氧溶解率为82.7%,臭氧利用率为97.7%。2)增加紫外灯的功率和数量均可提高对臭氧的去除率,但增加紫外灯的数量对其性能提升效果更明显。该系统在紫外剂量为1 996 MJ/cm2,对残留臭氧的去除率为83.82%。3)该系统对紫外消光度、总有机碳、水色等指标的去除率相比单独使用臭氧分别提升109.95%、89.77%和51.44%,杀菌率可达97%以上,实现工厂化循环水养殖低臭氧残留条件下的有机物有效去除和消毒杀菌。     

Quantifying the fine scale (1km × 1km) exposure,dose and effects of ozone: Part 2 estimating yield losses for agricultural crops

In Britain wheat is an important crop accounting for 41% of the total cereal production. In this study ozone concentrations for 1989 estimated as described in Part 1 of the paper are integrated with the estimated wheat distribution to derive a detailed estimate of the impact of ozone on wheat yields at a fine spatial scale (1km × 1km). These data provide estimates for calculating regional and national yield losses. The methodology can be applied to other crop species. Recent research on a range of crops has established relationships between the economic yield loss for certain crops, including wheat, and ozone exposure. Exposure is described as the accumulated exposure above a threshold experienced during the daylight hours (AOT). Critical AOT values are derived from yield exposure relationships which show linear reductions of yield loss with increasing ozone concentrations. This study has made use of land cover data from remotely sensed imagery at 25m resolution and nationally collected agricultural statistics for counties. These data were combined using an areal interpolation technique to provide more spatially articulate estimates of the location and intensity of wheat production. The results demonstrate the economic importance of ozone as a pollutant. Wheat yield losses attributed to ozone vary between different parts of the country but, for years when ozone levels are high, yield losses are likely to be significant in some areas.     

AN EXPERIMENTAL METHOD TO TEST THE EFFECTS OF LOCAL EMISSION REDUCTIONS DURING SUMMERSMOG

A method is presented that makes it possible to eliminate some of the meteorological influence on the change in air pollutant concentrations (mainly NO_χ and ozone) when considering the effects of local emission reductions. The relation of measurements outside the test area to values inside the area for normal conditions (i.e. defined weather type, no emission reduction in the test area) allows prediction of the values for the test area during emission reductions, but only if this relation shows a good correlation. This prediction includes the influence of meteorological factors that are distributed more or less homogeneously within an area of about 100 km × 100 km, which includes a large part of the meteorological influence. The comparison of predicted and measured values in the test area shows the effect of emission reduction, with the uncertainty of remaining meteorological effects, of course. The method is applied to the Heilbronn ozone experiment in summer 1994. Most precise results are obtained for ozone, while conclusions for nitrogen oxides are more uncertain.     

Results from the UN/ECE ICP-Crops indicate the extent of exceedance of the critical levels of ozone in Europe

The experiments of the United Nations/Economic Commission for Europe (UN/ECE) International Cooperative Programme on effects of air pollution and other stresses on crops and non-wood plants (ICP-Crops) are designed to investigate the effects of ambient ozone pollution on crops and non-wood plants. Each year, participants from approximately 17 European countries conduct a series of coordinated experiments to determine which species develop visible injury following ozone episodes and whether the biomass or yield of sensitive species is reduced. In 1993, ozone injury was only seen at two thirds of sites but in 1994 injury was detected at almost all sites. This coincides with generally higher ozone concentrations measured in that year. Injury was seen on crops including subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum L.), white clover (Trifolium repens L.), bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum), soybean (Glycine max), watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) and tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) at experimental sites and in some cases, in commercial fields. The application of ethylenediurea (EDU) to some crop species reduced the level of visible injury. At some sites, the yield of EDU-treated bean plants was greater than that of untreated plants where the critical level of ozone for yield reduction was exceeded. Preliminary analysis of ozone concentrations in the days preceding injury indicated a sequential ozone concentration effect. The results are discussed in relation to Level I and Level II mapping of exceedance of the short- and long-term critical levels for ozone.     

利用DEM提取陕北黄土高原沟谷网络的汇流阈值研究

以陕北黄土高原多地貌类型样区为实验样区,采用5m分辨率的DEM为基本信息源,构建不同汇流阈值与所提取沟壑密度量化关系。实验结果显示,汇流阈值X与沟壑密度Y呈定量统计模型。根据所获得的陕北黄土高原不同地区模型系数值,可有效地构建汇流阈值与沟壑密度之间的定量关系。这对于两者之间的相互求解,特别是科学、合理地确定汇流阈值,提供了理论依据。     

Ozone sensitivity of plants in natural communities

Field fumigation studies conducted in grassland, oak, aspen, and conifer, communities established the injury threshold of prevalent plant species to ozone. Several important species, including Bromus tectorum, Quercus gambelii, and Populus tremuloides, were injured by a single 2-hours exposure to 15 pphm ozone. Over half the perennial forbs and woody species studied were visibly injured at concentrations of 30 pphm ozone or less. It is postulated that lower concentrations at prolonged or repeated exposures to ozone may impair growth and affect community vigour and stability. Continued exposure of natural plant communities to ozone is expected to initiate major shifts in the plant composition of communities.     

Clover Sweden — A national three-year study of the effects of tropospheric ozone on Trifolium subterraneum,L.

In 1992 a cooperative project, Clover Sweden, was initiated. The aim was to study if subterranean clover could be used as a bioindicator in the different climate zones in Sweden by studying the impact of ambient ozone concentrations on this species in different parts of the country during three consecutive summer seasons. Plants of subterranean clover, Trifolium subterraneum, L., were exposed to ambient air at 24 sites from north to south Sweden. The project was designed to be compatible with the international programme, ICP Crops within the UNECE and the Convention on Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution. The results showed that subterranean clover is a useful bioindicator of ozone in all agricultural areas of Sweden, with the exception for very cool and rainy summers resulting in poor growth of the plants. In 1992, and especially in 1994, ozone injury was detected at almost all sites in Sweden, reflecting the higher ozone levels of those summers as compared to 1993, when ozone concentrations were generally low and not much injury was detected. Typical injury was chlorotic and bifacial necrotic lesions on parts of the leaf surface. It is concluded that at mean ozone concentrations of 25 ppb (24 h mean) and 30 ppb (7 h mean) there is a potential risk for injury on 10% of the leaves. When % injured leaves was plotted against AOT (Accumulated exposure Over a Threshold) using different thresholds, it became obvious that a threshold of 20 ppb ozone should be used in order to fully protect from leaf injury under Swedish conditions.     

基于DEM的流域地貌气候瞬时单位线地貌参数的提取

 地貌参数的提取是水文模型构建的基础,参数的准确与否直接关系到模型的精度。该文研究了基于DEM提取地貌气候瞬时单位线(R-VGIUH)地貌参数的方法:对流域DEM进行填洼处理;提取不同临界支撑面积下的河网;分析临界支撑面积的取值对所提取的河网总长度和平均坡降的影响;确定反映流域河流地貌发育的流域临界支撑面积;计算流域相应的各项地貌参数。将该方法应用于山西省吉县的冯家圪垛小流域(17.98 km²),提取的河网与实际情况比较符合,计算出的地貌参数河数率(4.6083)、河长率(2.5928)、面积率(3.3999)均符合通过大量自然水系资料分析确定的取值范围。研究方法排除了选取集水面积阈值时的主观性,提高了提取流域地貌参数的精度。     

遵义市不同地质灾害易发区滑坡临界雨量研究

[目的]确定遵义市不同地质灾害易发区的滑坡临界雨量,建立阈值模型并对其进行检验评估,为该地区滑坡预测提供科学依据。[方法]利用遵义市2010—2016年59次滑坡事件对应的逐小时降雨资料,采用统计方法对不同地质灾害易发区的滑坡临界雨量的历时、降雨类型对比分析,建立阈值模型并对其进行检验评估。[结果]中锋型是主要的降雨类型;大于10和20mm/h强降雨基本来自滑坡发生当天,但中易区降雨历时均长于高易区的降雨历时。对于高易区来说,滑坡当日1h最大雨量与前期3d的有效雨量组合的阈值模型预报准确率最大,因此将滑坡当天1h最大雨量作为高易区滑坡发生的激发雨量。而对于中易区来说,滑坡当天3h最大雨量是其滑坡发生的激发雨量。[结论]不同等级地质灾害易发区其滑坡临界雨量不同。对已经确定的滑坡阈值模型需根据新增滑坡信息进行检验评估,如果预测模型对新增滑坡预测不准确,需调整其滑坡判别线,从而对阈值模型进行订正。     

Ozone effects on dry matter partitioning and chlorophyll fluorescence during plant development of wheat

In closed-chamber fumigation experiments dry matter partitioning and chlorophyll fluorescence of wheat were studied, analysing the effects of ozone during different stages of plant development. Ozone causes enhanced leaf senescence, leading to a loss of green leaf area and, consequently to a decreased supply of assimilates, affecting (in increasing order of severeness) stem, ear and grain productivity because of reduced storage pools for translocation. Leaves of plants before shooting stage were most sensitive but the lack of green leaf area after ear emergence had the most pronounced effects on grain yield.Measurements of photochemical capacity showed that evidence for negative ozone effects could be found in changes of chlorophyll fluorescence parameters in leaf sections not yet showing visible ozone injury. Negative effects on photosynthesis were more distinct with increasing accumulated ozone dose, with increasing age of leaf tissue and with increasing ozone sensitivity of the cultivar. The changes in chlorophyll fluorescence are most likely to be explained by a decreased pool size of plastoquinones caused by ozone.     

Testing trends in environmental compliance

Many environmentalregulations are based on threshold levels. Such a level is generally set such that exposure to a toxin above the level is considered a hazard to health. In many instances, the level may be exceeded a certain number of times before regulatory action is taken. Such is the case with the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) set by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in accordance with the 1990 amendment of the Clean Air Act of 1970. This set of standards sets threshold levels for several pollutants including carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, ground-level ozone, and lead. Many areas of the United States, which the EPA designates as nonattainment areas, persistently exceed the air pollution levels set by the NAAQS. Progress in these areas is of ten slow but can be studied through data collected on the elapsed time between violations. The purpose of this article is to present a relatively easy but flexible statistical method for assessing whether an area is making progress with compliance to the NAAQS. The method presented in this article is based on a randomization test of a general model for the mean time between violations of the standard. The modeling-type approach of this method makes it flexible enough to study many types of trends. The use of the randomization test makes the method simple to apply and requires fewer assumptions than many other proposed methods. We discuss some general theoretical conditions for which the method is well suited and study the performance of this method empirically, Finally, we apply the method to a well-known set of interviolation times corresponding to data collected on ground-level ozone in Houston, Texas.