农田土壤硝化微生物的生态学研究进展

硝化作用是农田生态系统的重要过程。传统硝化作用是指微生物将氨氧化成亚硝酸盐再氧化为硝酸盐的两步反应，氨氧化过程是硝化过程的第一步也是限速步骤。该过程是由编码氨单加氧酶基因（amoA）的氨氧化细菌（AOB）和氨氧化古菌（AOA）催化完成。2015年底，可以进行一步硝化的完全氨氧化菌（comammox）的发现颠覆了人们对硝化过程近百年的认知，并引发众多对comammox生理代谢、分布特征和相对贡献的深入思考。本文重点阐述农田土壤硝化微生物的生态学研究进展，通过比较AOB、AOA和comammox的发现、系统发育以及对环境因子的响应等方面的差异，对农田土壤硝化微生物相关研究成果进行概括和总结，以期深入了解农田土壤中氮素转化机制，为农田尺度氮素养分管理、面源污染防控及温室气体减排提供理论依据。     

硝化微生物在土壤团聚体中的分布及其对种植方式的响应

【目的】硝化微生物在农田土壤氮转化过程发挥重要作用，深入开展团聚体中硝化微生物分布研究，有助于揭示土壤结构-微生物-土壤营养元素循环间的相互影响机制。【方法】选取旱地黄棕壤为研究对象，比较了玉米连作（M-M）和玉米/花生轮作（M-P）两种种植方式下土壤团聚体的性质和硝化潜势（NP）的变化，并通过荧光定量PCR和高通量测序研究了团聚体中不同类型硝化微生物功能基因的丰度和群落组成差异。【结果】与M-M相比，M-P能够显著提高团聚体pH、NH4+和全碳（TC）含量。M-P使NP显著提高，但团聚体粒径对NP无显著影响。氨氧化细菌（AOB）amoA基因丰度在M-P中高于M-M，且在较小粒级团聚体中分布更多，而氨氧化古菌（AOA）和全程氨氧化细菌（Comammox）amoA基因的分布模式与AOB大致相反，表明AOB更能适应较小团聚体环境，而AOA和Comammox倾向在较大团聚体中占据竞争优势。此外，与M-M相较，M-P团聚体间AOA/AOB和Comammox/AOB比值的差异减小，表明轮作促使土壤硝化微生物在不同粒级间的分布更加均匀。进一步对属水平土壤团聚体硝化菌群落组成分析，结果显示M-P提高了Nitrolancea属亚硝酸盐氧化细菌（NOB）和Candidatus Nitrosocosmicus属AOA的占比，降低了Nitrospira属NOB的占比，对AOB各属无显著影响。而团聚体粒径仅对Nitrosospira属AOB的占比产生显著影响。NH4+含量和pH是影响土壤团聚体NP和硝化微生物群落变化的最主要因子。NP与AOB amoA基因丰度显著正相关，与AOA amoA基因丰度负相关。但在群落组成上，Nitrosospira属AOB，Candidatus Nitrosocosmicus属AOA和Nitrospira属NOB均与NP呈现正相关。【结论】土壤团聚体粒径和种植方式能较大程度影响硝化微生物的分布，然而，不同硝化微生物在团聚体间分异机制具有明显差异，该研究为完善禾豆轮作下土壤硝化微生物在微域环境的生态适应机制提供了理论支持。     

基于宏基因组学的酸性森林土壤氨氧化微生物群落特征研究

全球30%以上陆地面积是酸性土壤(pH5.5),而酸性土壤中氨氧化微生物群落特征研究是破译其硝化过程微生物学机理的基础。尤其随着完全硝化微生物(Complete ammonia oxidizer,comammox)的发现,亟需重新认知酸性土壤中氨氧化微生物类群。以酸性马尾松林为研究对象,综合利用荧光定量PCR(qPCR)、凝胶电泳半定量和宏基因组测序等技术研究土壤中氨氧化古菌(Ammonia-oxidizing archaea,AOA)、氨氧化细菌(Ammonia-oxidizing bacteria,AOB)和Comammox的相对丰度以及群落组成特征。研究发现AOA和AOB amoA基因丰度分别为2.61×106 copies·g~(-1)和1.45×106copies·g~(-1);而comammoxamoA基因qPCR结果存在显著的非特异性扩增,导致其丰度被高估,而经凝胶电泳半定量矫正后,约为(1.38～1.47)×106copies·g~(-1),该结果和土壤宏基因测序揭示的comammox相对丰度基本吻合。此外,宏基因组分析发现经典嗜酸group1.1a-associated仅占AOA总类群的12%,而group1.1b则占88%,尽管目前仍未有嗜酸group 1.1b AOA纯菌株的报道。AOB主要类群为Nitrosospira(约64%),而Nitrosomonas约占36%。Comammox主要类群为clade B(约64%),而clade A仅占36%且均隶属于clade A.1亚枝,这暗示clade B与已报道的嗜中性comammox clade A纯菌株有极大的生理代谢差异。总之,本研究提供了综合利用qPCR、半定量和宏基因组分析土壤氨氧化微生物群落的策略,并建议优化comammox的qPCR引物,同时本研究系统分析了酸性马尾松林土壤中氨氧化微生物的相对丰度和群落组成特征。     

长期偏施氮肥对桑园土壤氨氧化微生物的影响

氮肥能够影响土壤氨氧化细菌(AOB)和氨氧化古菌(AOA)的丰度和种群结构。利用实时荧光定量PCR(RT-PCR)和变性梯度凝胶电泳(PCR-DGGE)技术研究不同氮肥施用年限(4年,4Y;17年,17Y;32年,32Y;0年,0Y)桑园土壤氨氧化微生物丰度及种群结构变化。结果发现,长期施用氮肥导致桑园土壤酸化,与4Y土壤相比,32Y土壤p H降低0.88。4Y处理土壤AOB amoA基因的拷贝数最高,而在32Y土壤中AOA amoA基因拷贝数最高。各处理AOB amoA基因拷贝数为每克干土6.46×10~5～8.32×10~7,明显高于AOA amoA基因拷贝数每克干土1.70×10~4～1.20×10~5。AOB种群丰度与潜在硝化速率(PNR)呈显著正相关,而AOA种群丰度与土壤pH和PNR的相关性不显著,表明AOB在硝化作用中发挥更为重要的作用。DGGE条带分析表明,氮肥施用年限对AOB种群结构影响较大,而对AOA种群结构影响较小。结果表明,桑园中AOB种群在氮循环中占主导地位,并且长期施用氮肥对桑园土壤AOB丰度和种群结构影响较大,而对AOA影响最小。     

青藏高原三种典型生境中硝化微生物分布和群落结构

以青藏高原3种典型生境(荒漠草地、湿地和盐碱地)为研究对象，通过amoA功能基因qPCR和16SrRNA基因扩增子测序，研究了其氨氧化古菌(ammonia-oxidizingarchaea,AOA)、氨氧化细菌(ammonia-oxidizingbacteria,AOB)、亚硝酸盐氧化菌(nitrite-oxidizing bacteria,NOB)和完全硝化细菌(complete ammonia oxidizer,CMX)的分布与群落结构特征。qPCR结果表明，荒漠草地和盐碱地中3种氨氧化微生物，其丰度顺序为AOA>CMX>AOB，而在湿地中则为CMX≥AOA>AOB。各生境中AOA主要类群为土壤类群(即group 1.1b)，且其中约半数属于Nitrosocosmicus属分支，该分支在北极冻土中也有分布。荒漠草地和湿地中AOB主要为亚硝化螺菌属(Nitrosospira spp.,71.21%～100%)，而盐碱地主要为亚硝化单胞菌属(Nitrosomonas spp.,75.51%～88.71%)。3种生境中NOB主要类群均为硝化螺菌属(Nitrospira ...     

土地利用方式对万木林土壤氨氧化微生物丰度的影响

以我国亚热带地区典型花岗岩发育酸性红壤为研究对象,选取福建建瓯万木林自然保护区封禁保护下5种自然植被和1种人工种植植被土壤,采用荧光实时定量PCR(Real-time PCR)技术测定了土壤氨氧化细菌(AOB)和氨氧化古菌(AOA)的群落丰度,采用15N稳定同位素成对标记和数值模型相结合的方法测定了土壤初级硝化速率。结果显示,长期封禁保护下的自然植被土壤pH低,土壤AOB数量偏低。人为种植和管理显著提高了土壤pH,促进了AOB的生长,其丰度比自然条件下提高了2个数量级,土壤初级硝化速率也显著提高,并与AOB数量存在显著的相关性,表明AOB是硝化作用的主要贡献者。5种自然植被条件下AOA的amoA基因拷贝数占泉古菌16S rRNA基因的比例都小于1%(0.01%～0.64%),在农业利用方式下上升到5.32%,表明并非所有泉古菌都具备氨氧化功能基因amoA,氮肥施用可能促进了氨氧化古菌的生长。     

水稻生育期内红壤稻田氨氧化微生物数量和硝化势的变化

利用荧光定量PCR(Real-timePCR)技术,通过特异引物检测amoA基因拷贝数分析了水稻不同生育期红壤稻田土壤中氨氧化细菌(Ammonia oxidizing bacteria,AOB)和氨氧化古菌(Ammonia oxidizing archaea,AOA)的数量变化,并测定了土壤潜在硝化势。结果显示:红壤稻田土壤中AOA数量显著高于AOB,二者比例在1.6～120.7之间;红壤稻田根层土中AOA数量显著高于表土,随水稻生长根层和表土中AOA数量均逐渐增加,且根层土中增加幅度更大;在水稻生长前期表土中AOB数量较多,孕穗期后根层土中AOB数量显著增加且高于表土。水稻生长期内土壤潜在硝化势也具有逐渐增加趋势,且根层土潜在硝化势增加幅度更大。根层土中潜在硝化势与AOB和AOA数量均呈显著正相关,而表土中潜在硝化势只与AOA数量存在显著正相关。研究表明,红壤稻田土壤中AOA数量更为丰富,且与硝化作用的关联程度更为密切,证实了氨氧化微生物在红壤稻田土壤微生物组成及其生态系统功能中的重要性。     

水氮耦合对设施农田土壤自养和异养硝化作用的影响

水氮措施影响设施土壤氮素的转化及硝化微生物活性,但水氮耦合对设施土壤自养和异养硝化作用差异的影响尚不明确。以连续8年设施水氮耦合田间定位试验土壤为研究对象,控制不同土壤田间持水量(WHC)(40%WHC、60%WHC和80% WHC)进行室内微宇宙培养试验,通过添加乙炔抑制剂抑制自养硝化途径,研究水氮耦合对设施土壤自养和异养硝化速率及参与自养硝化的氨氧化微生物的影响,分析氨氧化微生物氨氧化古细菌(AOA)和氨氧化细菌(AOB)对自养硝化作用的贡献。结果表明,水氮耦合下,不同硝化途径NH4+-N、NO^3--N含量以及参与自养硝化的AOA amoA和AOB amoA基因拷贝数均有显著差异。无乙炔培养7 d后,NO^3--N含量显著增加,而NH4+-N含量显著降低,AOA amoA和AOB amoA的基因丰度显著增加。添加乙炔后,NO^3--N、NH4+-N含量基本保持恒定,AOA amoA和AOB amoA基因丰度显著减少。水氮耦合显著影响自养和异养硝化速率,冗余分析(RDA)表明,NH4+-N含量、AOB amoA、NO^3--N-C2H2、AOA amoA可分别解释自养和异养硝化速率变异的68.9%、34.9%、32.8%和24.4%。设施土壤存在自养硝化和异养硝化两种途径,60%～80%WHC各施氮处理均以自养硝化为主,占总硝化速率的65%～86%;仅40%WHC下,氮纯养分量300和525 kg·hm-2处理以异养硝化为主,占总硝化速率的61%～77%。AOB和AOA共同驱动自养硝化,且AOB贡献更大。     

施肥和淹水管理对水稻土氨氧化微生物数量的影响

全程氨氧化细菌(Completeammoniaoxidizers,Comammox)的发现被认为是氮循环研究的重要进展,但复杂土壤中Comammox与氨氧化细菌(Ammonia-oxidizing bacteria, AOB)和氨氧化古菌(Ammonia-oxidizingarchaea,AOA)共存的环境驱动机制尚不清楚。针对紫色水稻土长期定位试验的植稻淹水(夏季植稻施肥并且全年淹水)管理、休耕冬干(不植稻、不施肥,仅在夏季植稻期间淹水,冬季排水落干)管理,研究了施肥和水分管理对水稻土硝化潜势及氨氧化微生物类群丰度的影响。结果表明,植稻淹水土壤的硝化潜势显著高于休耕冬干,分别为25.0 mg·kg~(-1)·d~(-1)、2.11mg·kg~(-1)·d~(-1),相差可达12倍之多。实时荧光定量PCR分析表明,两种管理方式下水稻土中均能检测到Comammox、AOA和AOB,并且其数量均为ComammoxAOAAOB。植稻淹水中Comammox丰度分别为AOA的8.5倍、AOB的77.3倍,而休耕冬干中Comammox丰度分别为AOA的4.1倍、AOB的490.3倍。相比于休耕冬干管理,植稻淹水刺激了Comammox分支A(Clade A)、AOA和AOB的生长,三者增长倍数分别为9、3、42,但Comammox分支B(Clade B)的降幅高达两倍之多。这些结果表明,与休耕冬干管理相比,28年长期植稻淹水,可能导致水稻土氨氧化微生物类群长期处于低O_2胁迫,并选择性促进了Comammox Clade A和AOA的生长,高强度施肥则显著促进了AOB生长,而Comammox Clade A和AOA则具有更广的铵态氮底物适应范围。未来应通过稳定性同位素示踪DNA技术,明确水稻土中数量上占优势的Comammox的功能意义及其与AOA和AOB的相对重要性。     

石灰性紫色土硝化作用及硝化微生物对不同氮源的响应

土壤中发生的硝化作用是对p H高度敏感的典型过程。本文采用室内恒温培养法,结合定量PCR和高通量测序,研究石灰性紫色土硝化作用以及氨氧化细菌(Ammonia-oxidizing bacteria,AOB)、氨氧化古菌(Ammonia-oxidizing archaea,AOA)、亚硝酸盐氧化细菌(Nitrite-oxidizing bacteria,NOB)的丰度与群落结构对不同氮源的响应。结果表明:不同氮源均刺激土壤硝化作用的发生,CO(NH2)2处理下的净硝化速率最大,约是CK处理的4.76倍,(NH_4)2SO4和NH_4Cl处理下的净硝化速率分别为N 3.88和3.34 mg kg-1d-1。相比于(NH_4)2SO4和CO(NH2)2处理,NH_4Cl处理降低了硝态氮的累积量,抑制了铵态氮的减少量。AOB amo A基因拷贝数在28 d培养过程中变化显著(p0.05),在(NH_4)2SO4和CO(NH2)2处理中呈先增长后降低趋势,在NH_4Cl处理中呈持续增长趋势;而AOA amo A基因拷贝数无显著变化(p0.05)。说明石灰性紫色土硝化作用的主要推动者是AOB,而不是AOA。在28 d培养过程中,亚硝酸盐氧化细菌占总微生物的比例高于氨氧化细菌和古菌,意味着石灰性紫色土中可能存在全程氨氧化微生物(Comammox)。高通量测序的结果表明:石灰性紫色土中AOB的优势种群为亚硝化螺菌Nitrosospira Cluster 3,AOA的优势种群是土壤古菌Group 1.1b,NOB的优势种群是硝化螺菌Nitrospira。     

长期定位施肥对中性紫色土硝化作用及氨氧化微生物的影响

为了研究长期不同施肥措施对中性紫色土氨氧化微生物及其硝化作用的影响,以国家紫色土肥力与肥料效益监测基地的中性紫色土为研究对象,进行土壤氨氧化细菌和氨氧化古菌amo A基因的Real-time PCR分析,比较长期不同定位施肥对土壤氨氧化潜势和硝化强度的影响,并分析不同施肥制度对功能微生物丰度与功能的作用。数据显示,土壤中氨氧化古菌amo A基因拷贝数(Log值6.21～7.14)远大于氨氧化细菌(Log值3.65～5.73),相对于对氨氧化细菌丰度的影响,施肥对土壤氨氧化古菌丰度影响较小。施用氮肥与磷肥都显著提高了土壤氨氧化细菌丰度,1.5NPK+M处理氨氧化细菌丰度最高(Log值5.73),有机无机肥配施可以显著提高土壤氨氧化微生物丰度;而含氯化肥的施用在一定程度上降低了土壤氨氧化细菌丰度与硝化细菌生长,与施用不含氯的肥料处理相比,含氯肥料处理的土壤氨氧化细菌丰度与硝化细菌数分别降低了3.74%和88.12%。研究表明,长期施肥能影响中性紫色土中氨氧化细菌的丰度,有机无机肥配施能够提高土壤的氨氧化潜力与土壤的硝化能力。     

pH regulates key players of nitrification in paddy soils

Increasing lines of evidence have suggested the functional importance of ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA) rather than bacteria (AOB) for nitrification in upland soils with low pH. However, it remains unclear whether niche specialization of AOA and AOB occurs in rice paddy wetlands constrained by oxygen availability. Using DNA-based stable isotope probing, we conclude that AOA dominated nitrification activity in acidic paddy soils (pH 5.6) while AOB dominated in alkaline soils (pH 8.2). Nitrification activity was stimulated by urea fertilization and accompanied by a significant increase of AOA in acid soils and AOB in alkaline soils. DNA-based stable isotope probing indicated significant assimilation of ¹³CO₂ for AOA only in acidic paddy soil, while AOB was the solely responsible for ammonia oxidation in the alkaline paddy soil. Phylogenetic analysis further indicated that AOA members within the soil group 1.1b lineage dominated nitrification in acid soils. Ammonia oxidation in the alkaline soil was catalyzed by Nitrosospira cluster 3-like AOB, suggesting that the physiological diversity of AOA is more complicated than previously thought, and soil pH plays important roles in shaping the community structures of ammonia oxidizers in paddy field.     

脲酶抑制剂与硝化抑制剂对稻田土壤硝化、反硝化功能菌的影响

[目的]在农业生产中,脲酶抑制剂(urease inhibitor,UI)与硝化抑制剂(nitrification inhibitor,NI)常作为氮肥增效剂来提高肥料利用率。本文研究了在我国南方红壤稻田施用脲酶抑制剂与硝化抑制剂后,土壤中氨氧化细菌(ammonia oxidizing bacteria,AOB)、氨氧化古菌(ammonia-oxidizing archaea,AOA)以及反硝化细菌的丰度以及群落结构的变化特征,旨在揭示抑制剂的作用机理及其对土壤环境的影响。[方法]试验在我国南方红壤稻田进行,共设5个处理:1)不施氮肥(CK);2)尿素(U);3)尿素+脲酶抑制剂(U+UI);4)尿素+硝化抑制剂(U+NI);5)尿素+脲酶抑制剂+硝化抑制剂(U+UI+NI),3次重复。脲酶抑制剂与硝化抑制剂分别为NBPT[N-(n-butyl)thiophosphrictriamide,N-丁基硫代磷酰三胺]和DMPP(3,4-dimethylpyrazole phosphate,3,4-二甲基吡唑磷酸盐)。通过荧光定量PCR(Real-time PCR)研究水稻分蘖期与孕穗期抑制剂对三类微生物标记基因拷贝数的影响,并分析土壤铵态氮、硝态氮与三种菌群丰度的相关性;利用变性梯度凝胶电泳(DenaturingGradient Gel Electrophoresis,DGGE)分析抑制剂对土壤AOB、AOA以及反硝化细菌群落结构的影响,并对优势菌群进行系统发育分析。[结果]1)荧光定量PCR结果表明,施用氮肥对两个时期土壤中AOB的amoA基因与反硝化细菌nirK基因的拷贝数均有显著提高,而对AOA的amoA基因始终没有明显影响;AOB与nirK反硝化细菌的丰度与两个时期的铵态氮含量、分蘖期的硝态氮含量呈极显著正相关,与孕穗期的硝态氮含量相关性不显著;DMPP仅在分蘖期显著减少了AOB的amoA基因拷贝数,表明DMPP主要通过限制AOB的生长来抑制稻田土壤硝化过程;NBPT对三类微生物的丰度无明显影响;2)DGGE图谱表明,在分蘖期与孕穗期,施用氮肥均明显增加了图谱中AOB的条带数,而对AOA却没有明显影响;氮肥明显增加了孕穗期反硝化细菌的条带数;与氮肥的影响相比,抑制剂NBPT与DMPP对AOA、AOB以及反硝化菌的群落结构影响甚微;系统发育分析结果表明,与土壤中AOB的优势菌群序列较为接近的有亚硝化单胞菌和亚硝化螺菌。[结论]在南方红壤稻田中,施入氮肥可显著提高AOB与反硝化细菌的丰度,明显影响两种菌群的群落结构,而AOA较为稳定;NBPT对三类微生物的群落结构丰度无明显影响;硝化抑制剂DMPP可抑制AOB的生长但仅表现在分蘖期,这可能是其缓解硝化反应的主要途径;这也说明二者对土壤生态环境均安全可靠。     

Comparison of lipid biomarker and gene abundance characterizing the archaeal ammonia-oxidizing community in flooded soils

In the last years, archaea have been identified as key players in global N cycling, especially in nitrification. Ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA) are postulated to belong to the new phylum Thaumarchaeota for which the lipid crenarchaeol should be specific. The ratios between two independent markers for AOA, the ammonia monooxygenase gene and crenarchaeol have been studied in different aerated soils, but so far not in flooded soils. This study investigated ammonia-oxidizing archaea in four paddy soils and a tidal wetland. Ratios were significantly higher in the paddy soils compared to the tidal wetland and in general higher as in upland soils, leading to the assumption that archaeal ammonia oxidizers different from crenarchaeol-containing Thaumarchaeota may play an important role in paddy soils.     

Bacteria dominate ammonia oxidation in soils used for outdoor cattle overwintering

In areas used for cattle overwintering detrimental effects normally associated with grazing are intensified. Among the alterations observed, increases on the N availability and soil pH may highly influence structure of ammonia oxidizing microbes and thus influence nitrification pattern in soil. To evaluate this assumption, we assessed the abundance and diversity of ammonia oxidizing bacteria (AOB) and archaea (AOA) in three sites with different degrees of animal impact (severe, moderate or no impact) of an overwintering pasture by means of qPCR and T-RFLP of amoA genes. In areas where no animal impact could be identified AOA was dominating over AOB. However, AOB abundance increased as the degree of animal impact enhances, becoming most dominant in the severely impacted site. Interestingly, the diversity of AOB was the highest in the severely impacted area, where AOA diversity was the lowest. Obviously the pressure imposed by altered environmental conditions created by cattle husbandry lead to the selection of AOB and AOA populations, adapted to alkaline pH and higher ammonia concentration.     

Growth of comammox Nitrospira is inhibited by nitrification inhibitors in agricultural soils

Purpose

The discovery of comammox Nitrospira being capable of complete oxidising ammonia to nitrate radically challenged the conventional concept of two-step nitrification. However, the response of comammox Nitrospira to nitrification inhibitors (NIs) and their role in soil nitrification remain largely unknown, which has hindered our ability to predict the efficiency of NIs in agroecosystems.

Materials and methods

We evaluated the effect of four NIs, 2-chloro-6-(trichloromethyl) pyridine (nitrapyrin), 3,4-dimethylpyrazole phosphate (DMPP), allylthiourea (ATU) and dicyandiamide (DCD) on the growth of comammox Nitrospira, ammonia-oxidising archaea (AOA) and ammonia-oxidising bacteria (AOB) in two pasture and arable soils.

Results and discussion

The amendment of nitrogen fertiliser significantly increased soil nitrate concentrations over time, indicating a sustaining nitrification activity in both soils. The addition of all the four NIs effectively reduced the production of nitrate in both soils, but to varying degrees during incubation. The abundances of comammox Nitrospira clade A were significantly increased by addition of nitrogen fertilisers and significantly impeded by the four NIs in the pasture soil, but their abundances were only remarkably hindered by nitrapyrin in the arable soil. All the four NIs obviously inhibited the AOB abundances in both soils. Except for DMPP, the other three NIs effectively suppressed the AOA abundances in both soils.

Conclusions

We provided new evidence that growth of comammox Nitrospira clade A can be stimulated by nitrogen fertilisers and inhibited by various nitrification inhibitors, suggesting their potential role in nitrification of agricultural soils.

     

Nitrapyrin affects the abundance of ammonia oxidizers rather than community structure in a yellow clay paddy soil

Purpose

Yellow clay paddy soil (Oxisols) is a low-yield soil with low nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) in southern China. The nitrification inhibitor nitrapyrin (2-chloro-6- (tricholoromethyl)-pyridine, CP) has been applied to improve NUE and reduce environmental pollution in paddy soil. However, the effects of nitrapyrin combined with nitrogen fertilizers on ammonia oxidizers in yellow clay paddy soil have not been examined.

Materials and methods

A randomized complete block design was set with three treatments: (1) without nitrogen fertilizer (CK), (2) common prilled urea (PU), and (3) prilled urea with nitrapyrin (NPU). Soil samples were collected from three treatments where CK, PU, and NPU had been repeatedly applied over 5 years. Soil samples were analyzed by quantitative PCR and 454 high-throughput pyrosequencing of the amoA gene to investigate the influence of nitrapyrin combined with nitrogen on the abundance and community structure of ammonia oxidizers in yellow clay paddy soil.

Results and discussion

The potential nitrification rate (PNR) of the soil was significantly correlated with the abundances of both ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA) and ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB). Application of urea significantly stimulated AOA and AOB growth, whereas nitrapyrin exhibited inhibitory effects on AOA. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the most dominant operational taxonomic units (OTUs) of AOA and AOB were affiliated with the Nitrosotalea cluster and Nitrosospira cluster 12, respectively. AOA and AOB community structures were not altered by urea and nitrapyrin application.

Conclusions

Nitrogen fertilization stimulated nitrification and increased the population sizes of AOA and AOB. Nitrapyrin affected the abundance, but not community structure of ammonia oxidizers in yellow clay soil. Our results suggested that nitrapyrin improving NUE and inhibiting PNR was attributable to the inhibition of AOA growth.