真空和面对面条面团谷蛋白大聚合体含量及粒度分布的影响

明确真空和面对低水分面条面团中谷蛋白大聚合体(glutenin macropolymer,GMP)特性的影响,有助于探讨真空和面改善面条质地的化学结构基础,该研究以3个小麦品种(郑麦366、宁春4号、济麦22)磨制的面粉为材料,在不同真空度(0、0.06、0.08 MPa)下和面,和面时间为8 min,测定面团中GMP含量及粒度分布,并采用Ellman试剂比色法分析蛋白质和GMP中游离巯基含量的变化。结果表明,与非真空和面相比,0.06 MPa制作的面团中GMP含量较高,而过高的真空度(0.08 MPa)会导致GMP含量降低。真空和面对面团中GMP粒度分布有显著影响,济麦22和宁春4号面团在0.06 MPa时大粒径GMP所占体积、表面积和数目百分比显著高于0和0.08 MPa(P0.05),而郑麦366在0.08 MPa时大粒径GMP所占体积百分比显著较高。真空度为0.06 MPa时,济麦22和宁春4号面团中的游离巯基含量显著低于0和0.08 MPa(P0.05);而对于郑麦366,0.08 MPa制作的面团中游离巯基含量显著低于非真空和面。对于2种中筋小麦粉(济麦22和宁春4号),适宜真空度和面会使GMP中更多的游离巯基参与二硫键交联。结论认为,适宜真空度和面可以提高面团中蛋白质聚合度;与蛋白质和湿面筋含量高、面团强度大的郑麦366相比,2种中筋小麦粉面团中GMP特性受真空度变化的影响更明显。研究结果为揭示真空和面的作用机制、深入认识面筋蛋白在面条加工中的作用提供参考。     

小麦粉面团形成过程水分状态及其比例变化

为揭示小麦粉面团形成过程水分状态和比例、面团结构的变化,以及这种变化与粉质仪和拉伸仪表征的质量特性之间的关系;认识面团形成过程表征筋力强弱的物质基础和变化机理。选用中筋(宁春4号)和强筋(师栾02-1)小麦品种为试验材料,利用低场核磁共振技术测定粉质仪和面过程、拉伸仪醒发拉伸过程不同时间点面团水分状态和比例的变化;利用红外显微成像技术分析面团形成过程不同取样点蛋白质和淀粉的分布及结构变化。结果表明,面粉原料中主要为弱结合水。面粉在粉质仪加水搅拌形成面团后,水分状态和比例发生显著变化,面团中的水可以分为强结合水(T_(21))、弱结合水(T_(22))和自由水(T_(23))。面团搅拌形成过程中,中筋小麦品种宁春4号面团中的强结合水比例显著降低;师栾02-1的强结合水的弛豫时间在和面终点消失,弱结合水的弛豫时间显著延长,而自由水的比例显著增加(P0.05)。强筋小麦粉强结合水的保持时间较长。拉伸过程加盐和不加盐对同一取样点、同一种水分状态之间的水分弛豫时间和比例无显著影响;宁春4号自由水的弛豫时间在加盐和不加盐处理时都显著缩短(P0.05)。湿面筋含量高、筋力较强面团的蛋白质网络结构致密。粉质仪和面过程强结合水和弱结合水弛豫时间和比例的变化,与面筋含量和强度有关。该结论可为面制品加工过程和面工艺选择与优化等方面提供一定的理论参考。     

适宜冻结温度保持牛肉蛋白稳定性抑制水分态变

为进一步明确肉品工业中不同冷冻温度对肉品品质的影响,探究了?18、?23及?38℃冻结后解冻（4℃）对牛肉蛋白稳定性及水分态变的影响。采用差示扫描量热（differential scanning calorimeter,DSC）、傅里叶变换红外光谱（Fourier transform infrared,FTIR）、低场核磁共振波谱（low filed nuclear magnetic resonance,LF-NMR）及H质子成像（magnetic resonance imaging,MRI）等技术,对比分析了?18、?23及?38℃冻结后解冻（4℃）过程中牛肉冻结-解冻曲线、蛋白质热稳定性、蛋白质二级结构、蛋白质表面疏水性、水分态变、解冻汁液流失等指标,研究了3种温度条件下冻结-解冻过程中蛋白质稳定性与水分态变规律。结果表明,牛肉的冻结点温度为?1.1℃,冻结温度越低,通过最大冰晶生成带所用的时间就越短,而肉样解冻至中心温度为4℃时所需时间也越长;?38℃冻结过程中肌原纤维蛋白的抗变性能力与热稳定性较好;冻结后牛肉肌原纤维蛋白发生部分程度的变性,而解冻后牛肉蛋白又会发生复性;冻结导致牛肉蛋白质表面疏水性显著升高（P<0.05）,而解冻后牛肉蛋白质表面疏水性显著降低（P<0.05）。FTIR、LF-NMR及MRI等结果相互佐证,表明?38℃冻结牛肉蛋白质二级结构的稳定性最好,解冻后蛋白质复性、水分回吸,不易流动水态变成自由水的趋势显著低于?23℃和?18℃冻结（P<0.05）,解冻汁液流失也最少（P<0.05）。试验结果揭示了冻结温度对牛肉蛋白质稳定性及水分态变的影响。     

小麦面条和面过程不同阶段面絮的划分与自动识别

和面是小麦面条加工过程中重要的一道工序,主要依据人工经验判断和面终点,缺少基于客观分析的自动化评价方法。为了实现和面过程的自动化,该研究依据小麦面条和面过程中面絮颗粒宏观状态,通过面絮状态图像的数据分析,并且从面条质构、水分状态及分布、蛋白质分子特性及微观结构揭示和面阶段划分的依据。结果表明,和面过程可以划分为初始面粉（阶段1）、润湿黏连（阶段2）、聚集成形（阶段3）、破裂分散（阶段4）和稳定平衡（阶段5）5个阶段,阶段5占和面总时间的50%左右;从阶段2到稳定平衡阶段初期（阶段5-1）,面片的硬度、弹性和咀嚼性逐渐增加并达到最大,在稳定平衡阶段中后期（阶段5-2、5-3）,面片硬度等指标数值下降;低场核磁共振与核磁共振成像分析结果表明,阶段2的水分自由度高,和面过程加速了水分在固、液、气三相之间的交换,并在阶段5达到稳定;所有和面阶段中氢键、离子键的强度明显低于疏水相互作用的强度,游离巯基含量在阶段5-2、5-3逐渐降低至稳定,二硫键含量在此阶段逐渐增多并保持稳定,蛋白质实现充分交联,决定了面条微观结构和宏观状态。构建基于深度学习的Transfer-ResNet50网络模型,实现和面阶段面絮图像的自动识别,模型识别准确率达98.5%,具有良好的可靠性,可以实现和面终点的自动判断。综上所述,面絮宏观颗粒状态可以作为和面过程划分的可靠依据,深度学习也为小麦面条和面过程自动控制提供新的思路。     

超声辅助变压滚揉对鸡肉蛋白质结构及含水量的影响

为了探讨超声辅助变压滚揉对原料肉腌制过程蛋白质结构及水分含量的影响,该研究以鸡胸肉为原料分别进行静置腌制(对照)、真空滚揉(vacuum tumbling,VT)腌制和超声辅助变压滚揉(pressure-transform tumbling curing assisted by ultrasound,PTU)腌制处理100 min,采用拉曼光谱、低场核磁共振(low-field nuclear magnetic resonance,LF-NMR)、扫描电镜(scanning electron microscopy,SEM)和透射电镜(transmission electron microscope,TEM)测定不同腌制处理后鸡肉肌原纤维蛋白的二级结构、肌肉中水分含量以及肌肉组织微观结构的变化.结果显示,经过VT和PTU腌制处理的鸡肉其各项指标较对照组均发生显著变化(P＜0.05),其中拉曼光谱分析显示PTU处理的鸡肉肌原纤维蛋白质二级结构组成发生更显著变化,α-螺旋含量降低(P＜0.05),β-折叠和-转角的含量显著增加(P＜0.05);LF-NMR结果显示PTU处理的鸡肉的结合水横向弛豫时间和不易流动水横向弛豫时间较VT处理显著减小(P＜0.05),而对应的结合水峰面积百分比和不易流动水峰面积百分比都较其他处理组增加(P＜0.05).扫描电镜和透射电镜研究结果也显示经PTU处理的鸡肉组织结构破坏最严重,Z线以及肌原纤维膜降解最为明显.综上,PTU处理能够通过改变蛋白质结构、水分存在状态分布以及微观结构的变化来加速原料鸡肉腌制效率,改善嫩度和提高保水性;研究结果为PTU技术在肉制品加工中的应用及相关设备的开发提供理论依据.     

基于低场核磁共振的热风干燥过程花生仁含水率预测模型

为研究热风干燥过程中花生仁内部水分的变化规律,该文采用热空气对开农71、开农8834-9、天府3号3个品种的湿花生进行干燥,监测干燥过程中花生果、花生仁与花生壳含水率的变化;并利用低场核磁共振技术(LF-NMR)研究干燥过程中花生仁内部自由水、弱结合水和结合水的变化情况;建立花生仁水分弛豫峰占比与其含水率之间的数学关系,提出了一种花生含水率的快速检测方法。结果表明,由于花生仁和花生壳化学组成不同,仁和壳干燥曲线呈现不同的变化趋势。LF-NMR弛豫图谱显示干燥过程中,自由水弛豫峰逐渐消失,结合水和弱结合水弛豫峰面积无明显变化规律,油脂峰峰面积基本不变,说明花生仁在干燥过程中油脂的含量无明显变化。建立的花生仁国标法实测含水率y与核磁共振弛豫谱图得到的总水分峰占比(T21+T22+T23)的拟合方程R2为0.888 4。经验证,该方程能较好地对未知含水率的花生仁样品进行预测。因此,低场核磁共振技术可以用于花生仁含水率的快速检测。     

双轴卧式和面机的和面效果及其对面条质量的影响

为了明确和面速度和搅拌杆构型不同的双轴卧式和面机的和面效果及其对面条质量的影响,该研究以3种小麦粉（高筋一等粉、富强粉、上白粉）为材料,采用550型棒状杆恒速和面机和765型角度桨叶状搅拌杆调速和面机和面,比较分析和面效果和面条质量。结果表明,2种类型和面机的和面效果存在较大差异,对面条质量有较大影响。与550型棒状杆恒速和面机相比,765型调速和面机制作的面絮胚粒大小中等、大颗粒（粒径≥4000μm）胚粒比例明显较低;复合后的面坯色泽均匀,鲜面条拉伸特性较好,且熟面条硬度较大、耐咀嚼。765型和面机采用2种不同的和面参数,即高速和低速搅拌的时间组合不同,得到的和面效果也不相同。和面方式Ⅱ（高速和面300 s、低速和面480 s）制作的面絮颗粒相对偏小,面坯较厚、更为亮白,而熟面条的回复性弱于和面方式Ⅲ（高速和面500 s、低速和面280 s）。研究结果表明,不同品质的面粉应选择不同的和面方式,面筋质量高且颗粒度大的高筋一等粉适合高速搅拌时间较长的和面方式Ⅲ,制作的鲜面条拉伸阻力和熟面条硬度、胶着性、咀嚼性、回复性均显著大于搅拌强度较小的和面方式Ⅱ。     

冻融循环下冷冻非发酵面团品质的变化及机理

为了探讨储运销售过程引起的冻融循环对冷冻非发酵面团品质的影响,利用低场核磁共振分析仪（LF-NMR）、质构仪与流变仪等对样品面团水分与蛋白质组分、质构与流变特性进行测定,研究冻融循环下冷冻非发酵面团品质变化。结果表明：5次冻融交替中,失水率显著上升,达至3.14%;总水分中半结合水含量在 F1后整体呈下降趋势,表明冻融循环过程中,半结合水不断散失;至第5次冻融时,醇溶蛋白含量显著下降（P＜0.05）,谷蛋白与谷蛋白大分子聚合物（GMP）含量至第4次冻融后均显著下降（P＜0.05）,分别降至2.26%与0.70%;生面坯剪切力显著上升,强韧性则与之相反;熟面坯硬度呈上升再下降趋势,黏性基本呈上升,弹性呈下降趋势;弹性模量G'与黏性模量G'均呈下降趋势,且在第4次时,tanδ（tanδ=G'/G'）至最大,表明G'的变化程度比G'大。由此可见,冻融循环致使冷冻非发酵面团品质有所下降。总而言之,冻融循环对冷冻非发酵面团的品质下降产生一定的负面影响。     

磁场辅助冻结对冷冻熟制面条品质的影响

在食品的冻结方式中,磁场是一种新兴的物理方法,其特点是在食品原料中具有很强的穿透性。为改善冷冻熟制面条的品质,探究了磁场辅助冻结对冷冻熟制面条品质的影响。选取不同的磁场强度：3、6、9、12、15、18 Gs,辅助冻结面条。结果表明：磁场强度为12 Gs时,与未加磁场的空白组相比,冷冻熟制面条的冻结时间显著（P<0.05）缩短了4 min、白度显著（P<0.05）增大2.37%、硬度显著（P<0.05）提升7.40%、咀嚼性显著（P<0.05）增大12.41%、剪切力显著（P<0.05）增大19.20%、蒸煮损失显著（P<0.05）降低17.88%、微观结构中冰晶更细小、可冻结水含量显著（P<0.05）降低9.44%、水分分布状态中结合水含量显著（P<0.05）提升10.95%、淀粉分子的峰强度比值降低,老化程度显著（P<0.05）降低0.22%,结果表明,磁场辅助冻结可以改善冷冻熟制面条的品质,12 Gs的磁场强度冻结效果较好。     

不同干燥方式对柠檬片干燥特性及品质的影响

为探索不同干燥方式对柠檬片干燥特性及品质的影响,该研究采用真空冻结冷冻干燥、传统冷冻干燥、热风干燥3种方式进行对比干燥试验。结果表明,真空冻结冷冻干燥柠檬片工艺耗时比传统冷冻干燥节省5 h,但是热风干燥2倍以上;耗电量比传统冷冻干燥节省14.27%,但是热风干燥5倍以上;真空冻结冷冻干燥、传统冷冻干燥、热风干燥柠檬片维生素C保存率分别为66.03%、45.45%、19.14%,复水比分别为4.60、3.97、2.24,差异显著(P0.05);热风干燥柠檬片色差值显著(P0.05)高于两组冷冻干燥柠檬片,而两组冷冻干燥柠檬片色差值未见显著差异(P0.05);真空冻结冷冻干燥柠檬片中5种主要挥发性风味化合物保存率显著(P0.05)高于传统冷冻干燥柠檬片,热风干燥柠檬片保存率最低(P0.05)。3组干燥柠檬片残留水均呈现自由水、不易流动水、结合水3个横向弛豫时间峰位,干燥样品残留水分中结合水占比例最高,不易流动水和自由水占比例较小,热风干燥柠檬片横向弛豫时间峰位相对其他两组呈现小幅度的右移趋势;两组冷冻干燥柠檬片感官特征总评分差异不显著(P0.05),热风干燥柠檬片在色泽、质地、柠檬味上远不及两组冷冻干燥柠檬片感官特征丰富。真空冻结冷冻干燥是高附加值柠檬片的首选干燥方法。该研究结果为柠檬片干燥加工技术提升提供参考。     

Influence of Vacuum Mixing on Structural Characteristics and Physical Properties of Noodle Dough

The effects of vacuum mixing on the structural characteristics and physical properties of noodle dough were investigated using three leading Chinese wheat cultivars. Texture profile analysis showed that vacuum mixed doughs when sheeted all gave significantly higher levels of adhesiveness, elasticity, and chewiness than doughs from nonvacuum mixing. The cross section of sheeted dough mixed at 0.06 MPa had a more continuous and compact microstructure with fewer holes and gaps, as well as more even protein distribution at the surface, as evidenced by scanning electron microscopy and Fourier transform infrared microimaging. However, a higher degree of vacuum was detrimental to the developed network for weak dough. Dough mixed at 0.06 MPa had higher glutenin macropolymer content and lower free thiol group concentration compared with nonvacuum mixed doughs, which may largely relate to the improvement of dough texture. The development of the gluten network for weak gluten flour was more sensitive to the degree of vacuum.     

Suitability of Ontario‐Grown Hard and Soft Wheat Flour Blends for Noodle Making

This study evaluated the blending of flours made from an Ontario hard red winter wheat (HWF) and an Ontario soft red winter wheat (SWF) and compared it with a commercial standard noodle flour (control) made from Canadian Western Hard Red Spring wheat to assess the impact on white salted noodle‐making performance and texture of cooked noodles. Flour characteristics, gluten aggregation, and starch pasting properties were assessed with a farinograph, GlutoPeak tester, and Rapid Visco Analyzer, respectively. The machinability of dough was evaluated with an SMS/Kieffer rig attached to a TA.XT Plus texture analyzer. Tensile and bite tests of cooked noodles were also conducted. Blending HWF with standard noodle flour decreased gluten strength and dough extensibility linearly proportional to the blend ratio, whereas a curvilinear response from blending SWF with standard noodle flour was observed. HWF demonstrated more favorable pasting properties except for lower peak viscosity for noodle making than standard noodle flour. Below a 20% blend ratio with HWF, no significant changes were seen on dough extensibility, cooking loss, tensile properties, and bite testing parameters of cooked noodles. It can be concluded that blending HWF up to a 20% level caused no significant change in the processing properties of dough and cooked noodle quality. The results also showed that the GlutoPeak tester is a sensitive tool for evaluating gluten strength in wheat flour.     

1H Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) Studies of Water Mobility in Dough Systems Containing Barley Flour

This study used ¹H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spin‐spin relaxation time (T₂) and differential scanning calorimetric (DSC) measurements of unfreezable water content (UFW), to assess water behavior in freshly prepared (25°C), refrigerator‐stored (4°C, one day), or freezer‐stored (–35°C, one day) doughs containing 5, 10, or 30% whole grain, air‐classified β‐glucan‐diminished, and air‐classified β‐glucan‐enriched (BGB‐E) barley flours. Three populations of water were detected by NMR, depending on moisture content of dough, namely, tightly (T₂₁, 2–5 msec), less tightly (T₂₂, 20–50 msec), and weakly (T₂₃, 100–200 msec) bound water. T₂₂ peak was always detectable, and T₂₂ peak time linearly correlated to moisture content of dough in a range of 0.7–2.0 g/g db (r = 0.99, P < 0.05). Freezer storage showed less effect on water mobility in dough compared with refrigerator storage, whereas cooking and cool storage of cooked dough significantly decreased the water mobility (P < 0.05). Adding barley flour steadily decreased the water mobility in dough, and the reduction was more significant with adding BGB‐E (P < 0.05). Immobile water content was calculated by extrapolating T₂₂ peak time versus total moisture content in dough and significantly correlated to the UFW content measured by DSC (r = 0.72, P < 0.05).     

Effects of Vacuum Mixing,Water Addition,and Mixing Time on the Quality of Fresh Chinese White Noodles and the Optimization of the Mixing Process

In this study, the effects of mixing process parameters (degree of vacuum, water addition, and mixing time under vacuum) on the cooking and sensory quality properties of Chinese white noodles were investigated by using one commercial‐scale noodle production line and one typical commercial wheat flour. Noodle appearance, firmness, elasticity, smoothness, and total quality scores were significantly improved as the degree of vacuum increased from 0 to 0.06 MPa, although lower sensory scores and larger cooking losses occurred when noodles were mixed at 0.08 MPa. Noodles with a water addition of 35% had the highest total score and the highest scores for each sensory factor. As mixing time increased, the sensory score of cooked noodles increased initially and then decreased. With a mixing time of 7 min, the sensory score was the highest and cooking loss was the lowest. The results of response surface methodology indicated that fresh noodle quality was most affected by the water addition, followed by vacuum degree. Added water was a more important source of variation for appearance, firmness, stickiness, smoothness, total score, and cooking loss than degree of vacuum and mixing time, whereas degree of vacuum was the predominant source of variation for color and elasticity. The interactions between the factors had little effect on sensory and cooking properties. The optimal mixing conditions were determined to be as follows: degree of vacuum, 0.06 MPa; added water, 35.6%; and mixing time, 7.25 min. Furthermore, vacuum mixing produced a more even, coherent, and closed microstructure for the sheeted dough than nonvacuum mixing.     

Impact of Bran Addition on Water Properties and Gluten Secondary Structure in Wheat Flour Doughs Studied by Attenuated Total Reflectance Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy

The aim of this work was to elucidate the underlying physical mechanism(s) by which bran influences whole grain dough properties by monitoring the state of water and gluten secondary structure in wheat flour and bran doughs containing 35–50% moisture and 0–10% added bran. The system was studied with attenuated total reflectance (ATR) FTIR spectroscopy. Comparison of the OH stretch band of water in flour dough with that in H₂O‐D₂O mixtures having the same water content revealed the formation of two distinct water populations in flour dough corresponding to IR absorption frequencies at 3,600 and 3,200 cm^–1. The band intensity at 3,200 cm^–1, which is related to water bound to the dough matrix, decreased and shifted to lower frequencies with increasing moisture content of the dough. Addition of bran to the dough caused redistribution of water in the flour and bran dough system, as evidenced by shifts in OH stretch frequency in the 3,200 cm^–1 region to higher frequencies and a reduction in monomeric water (free water). This water redistribution affected the secondary structure of gluten in the dough, as evidenced by changes in the second‐derivative ATR‐FTIR difference spectra in the amide I region. Bran addition caused an increase in β‐sheet content and a decrease in β‐turn (β‐spiral) content. However, this bran‐induced transconformational change in gluten was more significant in the 2137 flour dough than in Overley flour dough. This study revealed that when bran is added to flour dough, water redistribution among dough components promotes partial dehydration of gluten and collapse of β‐spirals into β‐sheet structures. This transconformational change may be the physical basis for the poor quality of bread containing added bran.     

The Rheo Extrusion Meter,a New Device for Measuring Wheat Flour Baking Absorption and Dough Consistency: Principle and Applications

The Rheo Extrusion Meter (REM) measures the time for vertical upward extrusion of wheat flour dough (subsequently referred to as extrusion time, ET) as a measure of its consistency. ET evidently increases with dough consistency. ETs are highly reproducible and sensitive to differences in dough moisture content. A single REM analysis takes 20 min, and the measured ET can be converted into the correct baking absorption at a given temperature. The heights of the extruded dough pieces are negatively correlated with straight‐dough bread loaf specific volume, both when comparing different flour samples and when adjusting moisture content of dough prepared from a given flour sample. The REM also allows determination of the consistency of complex wheat flour based systems and the impact of vital wheat gluten or ascorbic acid thereupon. Furthermore, in contrast to the farinograph, it detects the impact of endoxylanases hydrolyzing water‐extractable arabinoxylan on dough consistency.     

Relationship between endogenous protein disulfide isomerase family proteins and glutenin macropolymer

The effects of endogenous protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) family proteins on the properties of gluten proteins in dough during breadmaking were determined using bacitracin, an inhibitor of PDI. Bread loaf volume in the presence of bacitracin was increased to 118% of that in the absence of bacitracin. The addition of bacitracin caused a decrease in the extension tolerance of the dough. The amount of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)-insoluble glutenin macropolymer (GMP) in dough decreased to approximately 70% of that in flour during the 20 min of mixing for doughmaking. The addition of bacitracin to dough caused a dramatic GMP decrease, corresponding to ～20-30% of that in flour during the 20 min of mixing. The decrease in GMP was compensated by an increase in SDS-soluble glutenin polymer. Taken together, these results suggest that the endogenous PDI family proteins in flour suppress the depolymerization of GMP during dough mixing.     

氮磷配施对“济麦22”小麦产量及品质的影响

通过田间试验研究了氮磷配施对超高产冬小麦"济麦22"产量及磨粉品质、糊化特性、面团流变学特性及烘焙品质等的影响。结果看出,容重、出粉率与磨粉品质呈显著正相关;峰值粘度和峰值时间对面粉糊化特性影响显著;湿面筋含量、沉降值与面团流变学特性指标呈显著或极显著正相关,且对烘焙品质的影响显著。产量和品质的大部分指标随施氮磷量的增加而发生显著变化,氮磷肥对产量和品质的互作效应显著。施N 300 kg/hm2、P 150kg/hm2处理可获得超高产,且容重、出粉率、湿面筋含量、沉降值及面团稳定时间均显著高于其它处理,表现出较好的磨粉品质和烘焙品质。表明在本试验条件下,该施肥量是济麦22优质超高产的最佳施肥模式。