基于像元二分法的沙地植被景观格局特征变化分析

景观格局与过程的关系研究是目前景观生态学的主要目标和研究热点,而沙漠化是一种典型的景观演化过程。基于景观生态学原理,运用遥感与地理信息系统技术,以古尔班通古特沙漠南缘为研究区,选择近40 a(1977-2010年)间不同年降水量梯度的代表年份(1977年、1990年、2001年和2010年),利用Landsat MSS/TM/ETM+遥感数据对沙地植被景观格局变化进行了分析。结果表明:1977-2010年间,古尔班通古特沙漠南缘沙地植被呈现恢复—退化—恢复交替变化趋势,总体处于恢复趋势中;景观水平上沙地植被破碎化程度处于增加趋势,景观异质性增强,斑块形状趋于复杂;类型水平上不同盖度沙地植被破碎化程度呈不同趋势波动,总体呈盖度相对高的植被破碎化程度增加,而盖度相对低的植被破碎化程度降低的趋势。1977-2010年间,沙地植被斑块重心在西南-东北方向交替呈现,重心轨迹形成"Z"形。总体来看,植被斑块由沙漠西南缘向沙漠腹地东北方向扩张。年降水量波动与沙地植被盖度演化方向、景观破碎化程度、不同盖度沙地植被比例、不同盖度沙地植被破碎化程度、不同盖度沙地植被斑块重心迁移方向均具有密切关系,即干旱区沙地植被景观格局演化特征与年降水波动具有很强的关联性。     

基于SPOT-VGT数据的新疆1998-2007年植被覆盖变化监测

利用1998-2007年1 km×1 km的SPOT-VGT数据,采用MVC法和差值法分析了新疆植被覆盖随时间的变化特征.通过一元线性回归法模拟了新疆维吾尔族自治区年最大化NDVI的变化趋势.结果表明,过去10 a间,全疆年均最大化NDVI值略有下降;春季NDVI呈增加趋势,秋季减势显著;7月为年内植被最丰盛期,10 a间NDVI累积增长主要发生在3,4,6月份,9月份累积减量最大.模拟结果显示,全疆植被改善区域面积小于退化区域面积,植被覆盖整体上呈退化趋势;植被改善幅度较大的主要为绿洲农业区,退化趋势明显的主要为森林、草场分布的山区.     

黑河上游植被覆盖时空变化特征及其未来趋势

[目的]分析黑河上游近14a来植被覆盖时空变化特征及其未来趋势,为区域生态保护提供决策参考。[方法]基于2001—2014年MODIS-NDVI数据,采用线性趋势和Hurst指数等数理方法进行定量分析。[结果]研究区植被覆盖整体处于缓慢增加趋势,年际变化呈现"波动—改善"趋势,空间分布呈现自东南向西北逐渐降低的分布特征,且具有明显经向地带性;植被覆盖改善区和退化区的面积分别占47.74%和21.81%,其中改善区主要分布在研究区中部和西北部,以高寒草原改善为主,退化区主要位于研究区东南部,以高寒草甸退化为主;未来的NDVI将向着改善的方向发展。[结论]近14a来黑河上游植被覆盖良好,且未来向着改善趋势发展,但对祁连、民乐和山丹县境内的持续退化区需要采取保护措施。     

2001-2016年福建省海岸带植被覆盖变化特征

[目的] 揭示福建省海岸带地表植被覆盖空间格局变化，为开展基于主体功能区类型的资源环境监测与预警提供决策参考。[方法] 基于归一化植被指数（NDVI）像元二分模型，选用2001，2006，2011，2016年Landsat系列遥感数据，评估研究区植被覆盖度以表征评价区域生态承载力变化。[结果] ①2001-2016年福建省海岸带低植被覆盖度面积总体下降，较低和较高植被覆盖度变化较为平缓，而高植被覆盖度呈现上升趋势；②2001-2016年生态承载力状态改善的面积增加了10.78%，基本稳定面积变化不大，而退化面积下降了7.05%，显著退化面积下降了3.48%。③2001-2016年不同类型主体功能区内植被覆盖波动下降，并呈现以生态承载能力改善为主要变化特征。[结论] 2001-2016年福建省海岸带植被覆盖度和生态承载能力呈现总体上升态势，海岸带整体生态环境不断改善。     

甘肃白龙江流域植被覆盖度及景观格局变化

基于1998—2012年SPOT NDVI数据,采用像元二分模型和景观格局分析方法,对甘肃白龙江流域植被覆盖度及景观格局时空变化及影响因素进行分析。结果表明:（1）1998—2012年白龙江流域植被覆盖度明显增加,高植被覆盖度面积增加量最大（737.30 km²）,2012年中高和高植被覆盖度面积比例达70.7%,植被覆盖度增加区域主要分布在宕昌县北部、岷江东岸、舟曲—武都段白龙江两岸及其以北区域。（2）研究期间,白龙江流域植被覆盖整体改善、局地退化,植被覆盖度显著增加和轻度增加的总面积和比例分别为4 675.90 km²,25%,显著减少的面积仅占3.84%。（3）1998—2012年景观破碎度增大,斑块密度增加了58.23%;景观形状趋于复杂化,LSI,AWMPFD和IJI分别增大到25.14,1.128,80.01;香农多样性和均匀度指数分别减少到1.342,0.834。（4）白龙江流域植被覆盖度增加是自然因素和人为因素共同作用的结果,退耕还林、天然林保护等一系列生态工程的实施是植被覆盖度增加的主要原因。     

2001-2014年海南岛植被覆盖时空变化特征

基于2001-2014年MODIS NDVI数据,采用趋势分析法、标准差法、Hurst指数法以及相关系数分析法研究了海南岛植被覆盖变化特征,结合气象数据及统计年鉴数据分析了气候变化及人类活动对植被覆盖变化的影响情况。研究表明:近14年海南岛NDVI呈显著增加趋势,增速为0.02/10 a（p<0.01）;空间分布上,植被覆盖呈由中心向四周递减的分布格局,高值区分布于中部山区市县;波动变化特征变现为中间波动小,四周波动大,高波动和较高波动区所占的比重为42%,高波动区主要集中于海口、琼海、万宁、东方、乐东等市县沿海区域;在趋势上,海南岛14年间植被覆盖变化以改善为主,轻度改善和中度改善所占比重为53.42%,其中22.65%的区域呈显著增加;Hurst指数表明研究区未来NDVI变化趋势呈持续性和反持续性的比重分别为57.21%和42.71%,其中持续改善和由退化转为改善的面积分别占11.15%和40.90%。海南岛植被生长年际变化受降水影响要强于气温,人类活动也是影响植被覆盖变化的重要因素。     

2000—2018年乌海市植被覆盖度时空变化

为了探究乌海市植被覆盖度时空动态变化特征以及预测NDVI变化趋势,基于Lantsat OLI/TM/ETM,DEM影像运用像元二分模型法、趋势分析法研究了乌海市2000—2018年植被覆盖度时空动态变化特征,重标极差(R/S)分析法的Hurst指数预测了乌海市未来NDVI变化趋势。结果表明:(1)2000—2018年乌海市植被覆盖度整体呈现上升趋势,增长速率为0.07%/10 a,植被覆盖度均值由22.26%增至41.30%;(2)空间上植被覆盖度呈现由西北向东南逐渐递增的趋势,植被覆盖度改善的区域大于退化区域,海南区改善趋势更明显;(3)从地形因子来看,植被覆盖度受高程、坡度影响较大,不同坡向间变化不明显;(4)乌海市大部分地区植被未来变化趋势为随机发展,持续改善区域占10.95%,持续退化区域占2.93%,海勃湾区持续变化性强,乌达区反持续变化性强。整体来看研究区2000—2018年植被覆盖度持续上升,植被改善明显,未来进行生态保护时应多关注地形因素和植被退化的区域,从而制定合理的政策。     

川西高原植被NDVI动态变化特征及对气候因子的响应

[目的]分析川西高原2001—2017年植被NDVI动态变化特征,研究植被NDVI对气候因子的响应,为区域水土保持和生态环境保护提供科学依据。[方法]基于MOD09A1数据反演川西高原植被NDVI,结合中国气象科学数据共享服务网提供的气温和降水等资料,利用Theil-Sen media趋势分析、Mann-Kendall统计检验和Hurst指数等方法,分析川西高原2001—2017年植被NDVI的时空分布特征、变化趋势及持续性变化特征,探讨川西高原植被NDVI变化对气候因子的响应。[结果](1)川西高原2001—2017年植被NDVI均值为0.486,呈由西北向东南逐渐升高的趋势,垂直分布上植被NDVI随高程增加呈现先增加后下降趋势;(2)近17 a川西高原植被NDVI整体以0.01/10 a的速率变化,变化趋势以改善为主,改善和退化面积分别占比83.5%和16.5%;Hurst指数研究表明,川西高原植被NDVI总体变化持续性较强,反持续性较弱;(3)2001—2017年川西高原气温呈上升趋势,降水上升趋势不明显;整体上植被NDVI对气候的响应存在空间差异,研究区北部主要受气温和降水影响,西南部主要受降水影响。[结论]川西高原植被的生长受气候、地形和人类活动等因素影响,植被NDVI呈现明显空间异质性。随着生态文明建设的持续推进,近17 a植被NDVI改善面积持续增加,且未来持续性较强。     

1982-2014年祁连山植被生长季NDVI变化及其对气候的响应

祁连山是西北地区重要的生态功能区和河西绿洲的水源涵养地,全面了解植被的生长变化有助于制定合理的气候变化对策。利用1982-1999年的GIMMS NDVI数据和2000-2014年的MODIS NDVI数据,采用最大值合成法、均值法、斜率法、相关分析法等,对祁连山近35年生长季植被变化及其对气候变化的响应进行了深入研究。结果表明:1982-2014年,祁连山植被NDVI整体呈增加趋势,但变化趋势并不明显;近35年,祁连山植被NDVI呈增加趋势的面积比呈降低趋势的面积大,表明植被覆盖状况有所改善,植被NDVI增加的区域集中于中西部,而植被NDVI降低的区域集中于东部;气候的年际变化对祁连山植被NDVI有一定的影响,植被NDVI对气温和降水存在一定的滞后性响应。气温升高和降水增加有助于祁连山植被覆盖增加,生态环境得到改善。     

基于MODIS-NDVI的连江流域植被覆被及空间格局变化分析

利用2001-2008年250 m分辨率的MODIS-NDVI数据与景观格局分析软件,对8 a来连江流域的植被覆盖与空间格局变化进行动态分析。结果表明:近8 a来连江流域的较高与高植被覆盖区面积减少而中度与较低植被覆盖区面积增加,即植被覆盖呈总体退化趋势;流域景观破碎程度减少、连通性增强,景观异质性提高,景观趋于多样化和均匀化;流域内各类景观要素在破碎化程度、复杂性和稳定性、空间分布关系、聚集性变化差异明显,其中较高与中度植被覆盖区的空间特征变化对整个流域空间格局动态起主导性作用。     

Soil-profile distribution of primary and secondary plant-available nutrients under conventional and no tillage

Nutrient distributions under no tillage (NT) compared with conventional disk-and-bed tillage (CT) management in the warm, humid region of the southeastern USA need to be assessed so that future placement, quantity, and type of fertilizers can be altered, if necessary, to efficiently match crop demands. We determined soil-profile distributions of pH, N, P, S, K, Ca, Mg, Na, Zn, Fe, Mn, and Cu to a depth of 0.9 m at the end of 8.5 years of continuous CT and NT management on a Weswood silty clay loam (fine, mixed, thermic Fluventic Ustochrept) in southcentral Texas. Most dramatic changes occurred within the 0–0.05 m depth, where soil under NT had lower pH, Fe, and Cu than under CT, but greater P, K, Zn, and Mn. Greater P and K under NT than under CT also occurred below the till-zone (0.15–0.3 m). At a depth of 0–0.3 m, soil under NT contained greater amounts of extractable P, K, Zn, Fe, Mn, and Cu than under CT. Nitrogen fertilization had little effect on nutrient distributions, except resulting in greater extractable K at 0–0.05 m and greater nitrate at 0–0.15 m. Few changes in soil-profile distributions were observed for extractable S, Ca, Mg, and Na. Long-term continuous use of NT on this fine-textured, high-fertility (except for N) soil had no apparent adverse effects on nutrient distributions relative to CT, but enhanced conservation and availability of P, K, Zn, Fe, Mn, and Cu near the soil surface where crop roots proliferate.     

Assessing the effectiveness of conservation measures: Resolving the “wicked” problem of the Steller sea lion

“Wicked” problems are those that are complex and that change when solutions are applied. Many conflicts in conservation fall into this category. The study approached the problem of how to constrain the apparent wickedness of a problem in the conservation management of a species by using simple empirical indicators to carry out iterative assessment of the risk to a population and to document how this risk evolves in relation to the addition of new data and the implementation of management actions. Effects of high levels of uncertainty within data and also concerning population structure were examined through stochastic simulation and by exploration of scenarios. Historical trends in the example used, the Steller sea lion, showed rapid declines in abundance in some regions during the 1980s. The current total population is 130,000-150,000 Steller sea lions through Alaska and British Columbia and this number has been stable since about 1990 in spite of regional differences in population dynamics. Regional differences in the sequence of changes in the number of pups and non-pups, suggested that an internal re-distribution of juveniles could have happened between 1980 and 1990. Current productivity also appears close to the long-term mean. Stochastic population projection using various scenarios showed that, based upon this history, the risk of extinction for the population has declined and is below reasonable thresholds for considering the population to be endangered. The trends in risk suggest that management actions taken since 1990 have probably been effective. Consequently, the conservation management objectives for the Steller sea lion are probably being met. The approach provides a mechanism, based upon experience and scenario analysis, for exploring future policy options and may help to constrain the debate amongst stakeholders about the cost-benefit trade-offs associated with different options.     

Enhanced establishment and growth of giant cardon cactus in an eroded field in the Sonoran Desert using native legume trees as nurse plants aided by plant growth-promoting microorganisms and compost

To evaluate the feasibility of long-term desert reforestation technology of mixed vegetation, cardon cactus (Pachycereus pringlei) seedlings from indoor and outdoor nurseries were planted in the field adjacent to one seedling of potential legume nurse trees: mesquite amargo (Prosopis articulata), yellow palo verde (Parkinsonia microphylla), and blue palo verde (Parkinsonia florida). Some of the planting holes were also supplemented with common dairy compost. Additionally, the combinations of legume tree–cactus were inoculated with either a consortium of desert arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi, plant growth promoting bacteria (PGPB; the diazotroph Azospirillum brasilense Cd, and the phosphate solubilizer Paenibacillus sp.), or a mixture of all. The field experiments were evaluated periodically during 30 months for survival and growth. Cardons reared in an outdoor screen house survived better in the field than those reared in a controlled growth chamber and hardened later outdoors. Association with any legume nurse tree increased survival and enhanced growth of untreated cardons. For cardons growing alone, application of either compost, AM fungi, and all the treatments combined increased survival. For these plants, no treatment affected plant growth during the first 3 months after transplanting. Later, all treatments, except for AM fungi, enhanced plant growth. However, only 2 years after transplanting the enhanced growth effect of AM fungi was also significant. In the presence of the legume nurse trees, transient positive effects on cardon growth were recorded. General evaluation after 30 months of cultivation showed that the treatments positively affected cardon growth when growing alone or in combination only with mesquite amargo but not with the other two legume trees. This study proposes that young legume trees have the capacity to enhance survival and growth of cardon cactus, depending on the legume cactus combination. Additional treatments such as compost or PGPB can either amplify the effect or else attenuate it.     

Karyotypic and genome size variation in Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. (pigeonpea) and some wild relatives

Detailed karyotypes and 4C DNA amounts have been studied in five cultivars of Cajanus cajan and 20 species belonging to Cajanus, Rhynchosia, Dunbaria, Flemingia and Paracalyx. C. cajan shows intraspecific variability and its karyotype is most similar to that of C. cajanifolius (sect. Cajanus) in the morphology and number of satellite chromosomes and the lack of any correlation between chromosome size within the complement and asymmetry. Karyotypes of C. lineatus and C. sericeus belonging to sect. Atylia are similar with respect to maximum r-index and the ratio of longest and shortest chromosomes in their respective complements. C. acutifolius (sect. Frutocosa) is distinct in having a very low ratio (1.44) between the longest and the shortest chromosomes, while in C. albicans, C. goensis, C. scarabaeoides (sect. Cantharospermum) there is no chromosome pair with r-index >2.0. C. mollis and C. volubilis (sect. Volubilis) show similarity with regard to ratio between the longest and the shortest chromosomes and a distinct chromosome pair with an arm ratio of 2.7 and C. platycarpus is distinct (sect. Rhynchosoides) in having the smallest ratio (1.36) between the longest and the shortest chromosomes. 4C DNA amounts in Cajanus and Rhynchosia vary between 3.28 pg to 11.69 pg and 4.92 pg to 11.13 pg respectively, while in Dunbaria, Flemingia and Paracalyx these vary between 4.70 and 7:06 pg. In the genus Cajanus karyotypic features and 4C DNA amounts agree with the sectional classification and bring out a close relationship between C. cajan and C. cajanifolius. This is supported by studies based on seed protein patterns, isozyme analysis, trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitor patterns, RFLP and RAPD data and crossability relationships. A clear relation between DNA amount and abnormalities effecting the extent of pairing and recombination in interspecific hybrids shows the importance of this study in developing future breeding programme involving C. cajan and its wild relatives that are of potential value.     

Effect of some fungicide seed treatments on the survival of Bradyrhizobium japonicum and on the nodulation and yield of soybean [Glycine max. (L) Merr.]

Several commercial fungicide seed treatments were evaluated for their possible effect on the survival of Bradyrhizobium japonicum on seeds and on the nodulation and yield of soybeans in a greenhouse and a field experiment. quinolate Pro (carbendazim and oxine copper), Vitavax 200FF (carboxin and thiram), and Monceren (pencycuron) had a small effect or no effect on the survival of B. japonicum and on the nodulation and yield of soybeans. They can thus be considered compatible with soybean seed inoculation. Germipro UFB (carbendazim and iprodione), Apron 35J (metalaxyl), and Tachigaren (hymexazol) decreased B. japonicum survival and the nodulation and yield of soybeans and thus cannot be considered compatible with soybean seed inoculation.     

Einfluss der düngungsmethoden auf die entwicklung von zuckerrübenkrankheiten

Während neunjähriger (1994-2002) Untersuchungen in der Versuchsanstalt Ba?cyny (Fahlerde, Fall-Gleyboden, ausgebildet aus leichtem Lehmboden) wurde der Befall mit Krankheiten an der Zuckerrübe in Abhängigkeit von der Düngungsmethode bewertet. Folgende Methoden wurden angewendet: A - Mineraldünger, B - Stalldung und Mineraldünger, C - Stroh-, Gründung und Mineraldünger, D - Kompostdünger und Biopräparate (ökologische Düngung). Auf den Objekten A, B, C wurden bei konstanter Phosphor-Kalium-Düngung die Stickstoffgaben von 0 bis 180 kg.ha^?1 differenziert. Auf dem ökologischen Objekt D ohne Mineraldünger wurden statt Stickstoff die Biopräparate P₅₀₀ und P₅₀₁ verabreicht. Der geringste Befall von Krankheiten wurde an der Zuckerrübe auf jenem Objekt festgestellt, das mit Kompost und den Biopräparaten gedüngt worden war. Im Rahmen der konventionellen Düngungsmethoden wurde allgemein die höchste Intensität der Krankheiten an der mit Stroh, Gründung und Mineraldünger gedüngten Zuckerrübe beobachtet. Ausnahmen von dieser Regel bildete das Vorkommen von echtem Mehltau und Keimlingsfäule. Auf den Objekten A, B, C nahm die Intensität der Krankheiten mit der Steigerung der Stickstoffgabe zu. Auch die auf Objekt D verabreichten Biopräparate stimulierten die Entwicklung der Krankheiten. The effect of various fertilization methods on the diseases of sugar beet was estimated on the basis of nine-year studies (1994-2002) conducted in the Experimental Production Farm in Ba?cyny on loess-based, sedimentary-gley, light-clay soil. The following fertilization methods were applied: A - mineral fertilization, B - mineral and manure fertilization, C - straw, green manure and mineral fertilization, D - ecological compost and biodynamic preparations fertilization. In the objects A, B and C fertilized with phosphorus and potassium, various doses of nitrogen ranging from 0 to 180 kg/ha^?1 were used. In the ecological object D, where mineral fertilization was not used, biodynamic preparations P₅₀₀ and P₅₀₁ were applied instead of nitrogen. The lowest ratio of the diseases of sugar beet was observed in the object fertilized with the compost and biodynamic preparations. In view of the conventional fertilization methods, generally the highest incidence of diseases was noted in the sugar beet fertilized with straw, green manure and mineral fertilizers. The exception was the occurrence of powdery mildew and the black leg. In objects A, B and C the incidence of the diseases increased with the increase in nitrogen doses. The applied biodynamical preparations in the object D stimulated the development of diseases too.     

Prospects for control of Pythium damping-off of lettuce with Trichoderma,Gliocladium and Enterobacter spp.

Summary Damping-off of lettuce (Lactuca sativa) caused by Pythium ultimum was studied in pots containing a non-sterile potting mix in the glasshouse. Fifty P. ultimum sporangia g^-1 compost reduced the plant stand to 15% and shoot dry weight to 18%, but this reduction was totally prevented by applying Trichoderma harzianum at 2×10⁵ viable propagules g^-1 potting mix. Gliocladium virens and Enterobacter cloacae also alleviated the damping-off. E. cloacae did not adversely affect the action of the fungal antagonists. The co-existence of the bacterial and fungal antagonists was revealed on the root surface and inner surface of the testa by scanning electron microscopy, indicating the compatibility of the biocontrol agents.     

细菌、真菌及植物氮营养信号研究进展

氮素吸收代谢是所有生物生命活动的核心部分,因此,各种生物对氮的吸收与同化过程都有精细的调节。这种调节依赖于生物对体内氮素状况信号及体外（生长介质中）氮素信号的感受。过去几十年中,在细菌、真菌中已经对氮素营养信号有了较好的研究,而植物中则相对缓慢,但也有了一定的认识。本文重点比较细菌、真菌及植物中氮信号系统的组成,以期为进一步认识植物中的氮信号接受与转导系统提供启示。     

Aircraft operations near concentrations of birds in Antarctica: The development of practical guidelines

Aircraft operations have the potential to disturb and to impact negatively on bird life. A gradient of increasing behavioural response is evident in birds when exposed to increasing aircraft stimulus. The most major disturbance is likely to lead to impacts on the health, breeding performance and survival of individual birds, and perhaps bird colonies. A process of revision to policies on aircraft operations contained in management plans for a number of specially protected areas in Antarctica by the United Kingdom, accompanied by consultations made within the scientific community through the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) and with operational interests through the Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programmes (COMNAP) resulted in new guidelines being adopted by the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties in June 2004. The principal recommendations of the guidelines are that bird colonies should not be overflown below 2000 ft (∼610 m) above ground level and landings within 1/2 nautical mile (∼930 m) of bird colonies should be avoided wherever possible. These guidelines are less stringent and less specific than those that were recommended by the SCAR specialist group on birds, and represent a compromise to accommodate operational needs. While the adoption of clear and consistent guidelines for the operation of aircraft in Antarctica is welcome in that this provides practical advice that is likely to reduce incidences of close aircraft/bird encounters, there remains insufficient knowledge of the interactions between aircraft and birds in Antarctica, and the consequent impacts on individual birds and on bird populations. It is important, therefore, that the guidelines adopted are considered interim, and should be kept under scrutiny with revisions made as new and improved research results appear.     

Potential of wild species for genetic enhancement of some semi-arid food crops

Discovery and incorporation of genes from wild species provide means to sustain crop improvement, particularly when levels of resistance in the cultigens are low and virulent strains of pests and pathogens overcome the host plant resistance. The extent of utilization and the potential of the wild genepool for genetic enhancement were reviewed in five important food crops viz. sorghum, pearl millet, chickpea, pigeonpea and groundnut grown in the semi-arid tropics. Introgression from compatible wild germplasm in the primary gene pool resulted in transfer of new cytoplasmic male sterility systems in pearl millet and pigeonpea, development of high protein, cleistogamous flower and dwarf pigeonpea lines and foliar disease resistant groundnut cultivars. Utilization of wild species in secondary and tertiary gene pools has been generally limited due to sterility, restricted recombination or cross incompatibility. Nevertheless, these species are extremely important as they contain high levels of resistance to several important biotic and abiotic stresses. Several of them, like those belonging to the Parasorghum section and the rhizomatous Arachis species are sources of multiple resistances and hold great promise to sustain crop productivity.